WEBVTT
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You're listening to Brains On, where we're serious about being curious.
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Brains On is supported in part by a grant from
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the National Science Foundation.
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Hey, Molly. Hey, Julian.
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Hi, Bob.
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Beautiful day today, isn't it?
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Wow, Bob, you're in a great mood. Were you watching
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paint dry again?
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Or waiting for a pot of water to boil?
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Two of my favorite things. I actually spent all day
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at a Taylor Swift concert.
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Whoa, seriously?
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That's awesome. Yeah, that's amazing.
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Yes, and here's the best part. I was at a
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Taylor Swift concert standing in line. The line moves a
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little at a time, and then when you get to
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the front, you can just go back to the end
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and start all over again. No one stops you, and
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you don't even need tickets for the line. You want
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to go check it out with me?
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Actually, we're just about to tape an episode, and we're
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snow excited about it.
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Yeah, it's going to be pretty cool, if you know
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what I mean.
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Oh, let me guess. Is it about frozen corn? I
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love frozen corn. Plain, no salt.
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Excellent guess, but no. We're trying to chill out, and
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we just can't because the topic we're discussing today is brilliant.
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We're not southpolling your leg. It's going to give you goosebumps.
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I know.
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That's nippy.
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Not quite, but don't worry, Bob. We're not penguining to
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feel frost-trated.
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Penguins?
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Frost? Cold?
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Oh, I give up. What is it?
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Today's episode is all about... Antarctica!
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Ah, Antarctica. Very fun.
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Very fun.
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But maybe next time, an episode about plain frozen corn?
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Or how about room temperature water? Or standing in a
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really long line? Oh, no, no. Standing in a really
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long line drinking a glass of room temperature water. That's it!
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You're listening to Brains On from APM Studios. I'm Molly Bloom,
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and my co-host today is Julian from Nashville, Tennessee. Hi, Julian.
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Hi, Molly.
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We are so glad you're here today because we're talking
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all about Antarctica, that amazing and mysterious continent on the
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Earth's South Pole. You sent in a question to us
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about it, right, Julian?
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Yeah.
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Yeah, I wanted to know whether there are any insects
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on Antarctica.
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A great question. What made you think of it?
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What made me think of it is that we have
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a lot of insects in summer, and I wanted to
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know if cold places had them too.
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Excellent question. Do you have a favorite insect?
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A butterfly.
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Do you have a favorite butterfly?
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Probably a monarch.
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Oh, yeah.
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They are so beautiful. So would you like to visit
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Antarctica if you could?
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Yes, because I would get to see penguins.
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That would be really fun. What is your favorite thing
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about penguins?
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My favorite thing about penguins is that they can survive
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in Antarctica.
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So would you rather be really cold or really hot?
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Really cold.
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Okay. Why?
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Why?
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Because I would get to play in the snow.
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Ah, yes. I love to play in the snow. What's
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your favorite snow activity?
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Um, snowball fight.
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Oh, very good. So when you think of Antarctica, you
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might imagine a place with tons and tons of snow
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and not much else.
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But that's not the case. There's actually very little snow there.
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It's mostly ice.
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And there are lots of other really cool things.
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Looking for an unforgettable vacation destination with awe-inspiring views, butchy,
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clenching temperatures, and sub-zero mountain breezes that will literally take
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your breath away? Then you need to visit Antarctica.
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Antarctica.
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Do you turn your nose up at sunny beaches, poo-poo
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swimming pools? Then come to Antarctica, where the temperature plummets
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to minus 76 degrees Fahrenheit in the winter. And when
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you're chilly, warm up to one of our boiling hot volcanoes.
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Or maybe you like super dry places. Well, you're in
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luck because Antarctica is one of the driest places on Earth.
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That's right, it's actually a giant desert. It only gets
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a couple inches of snow every year.
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Antarctica.
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One thing that Antarctica does have, ice ice baby. The
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Antarctic ice sheet is bigger than the United States and
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Mexico combined.
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Wow, so big.
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In some spots, the ice is almost three miles thick.
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Just think of all the winter sport possibilities. Ice skating,
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ice dancing, ice skateboarding, and of course, ice ping pong.
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And with six months of nonstop daylight every year, you'll
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never have to stop playing.
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Antarctica. Paid for by the Antarctica Tourism Bureau. Not responsible
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for frostbite, butt cheek tension due to prolonged clenching or
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ice ping pong injuries.
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Ice ping pong sounds awesome.
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Totally. Antarctica is an extreme place full of huge mountains,
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super thick ice, and active volcanoes.
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It has some of the harshest conditions on Earth. In fact,
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the coldest temperature ever recorded on our planet was in Antarctica.
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Yeah.
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Back in 2018, the temperature reached minus 144 degrees Fahrenheit there.
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For comparison, the freezer in your house is usually set
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to about zero degrees, so this was much colder. Much colder.
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You might be wondering, what can possibly survive in such
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a dry, cold place? The answer is lots of stuff.
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Along the coast of Antarctica, the temperatures are a little
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more mild. In the summer, it can get a little
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above freezing, which means different things can grow there, like moss, algae,
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and even lichen. Lichen is that funky green and white
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stuff that sometimes grows on tree bark.
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And there's also a bunch of different kinds of marine
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life on the coast.
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Like penguins.
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Eight different kinds of whales.
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Giant schools of krill, which look like tiny shrimp and
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feed all sorts of different sea creatures.
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And even fierce leopard seals.
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One thing Antarctica doesn't have? Polar bears.
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Polar bears are only found in the Arctic, near the
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North Pole. Remember, Antarctica is on the South Pole, the
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other side of the planet. Right.
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If you were looking at a world globe, Antarctica would
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be on the bottom. A lot of the creatures that
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live in Antarctica have special characteristics that help them survive
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the cold temperatures, like thick layers of blubber and fur
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to keep them warm.
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But what about insects? I'm picturing an insect with blubber.
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And it's kind of cute, but doesn't seem likely.
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Yes, you're correct. No insects with blubber, but there are
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insects on Antarctica. Well, I should say there is one
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insect that we know of that can survive outside on
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mainland Antarctica. It's called, drumroll please, the Antarctic midge. A midge?
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Isn't that like a tiny fly?
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It sure is. But this isn't just any tiny fly.
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It's an extraordinary tiny fly. First of all, even though
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it's technically a fly, it's flightless, meaning it can't actually fly.
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Okay, not what I was expecting, but go on.
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And even though it's so small, it's actually Antarctica's biggest
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land animal. That's because hardly any animals spend their entire
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lives on land there.
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Right. The other animals we talked about earlier... like seals
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and penguins spend part of their lives in the water.
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Back to the Antarctic midge. The adults have shiny black
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bodies with big eyes and fluffy antennae on their heads
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that look like feather dusters. And like we mentioned, they're
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teeny tiny, only about one-eighth of an inch long.
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That's like half the width of a pencil eraser.
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But here's the really impressive thing about this insect. It
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spends about nine months of the year frozen solid.
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Like a super small fly popsicle?
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Exactly. The babies that eventually grow into the adult flies
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are little purple wriggly grubs called larvae, and they're super survivors.
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They can live up to a month without oxygen and
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survive temperatures as cold as 5 degrees Fahrenheit.
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Whoa, that's one tough insect, but it can get way
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colder than 5 degrees in Antarctica.
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How does they survive?
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Scientists think part of it is where they live. The
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baby grubs live underground for almost two years.
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That makes sense. It's usually warmer underground, away from.
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The cold air. Another thing the midge has going for
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it is its ability to dry out. The baby grubs
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can lose almost three-quarters of the water in their bodies.
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And without as much water in their bodies, they're less
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likely to freeze.
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It's like they turn into little raisins and that helps
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protect them from the cold.
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Yes. They also make special chemicals in their bodies that
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keep them from freezing. almost like the antifreeze chemicals we
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use in our cars.
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Okay, you've convinced me. The baby midges are totally awesome.
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But what about the adults? What's their deal?
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Well, the adult midges emerge from the ground in the
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summertime when it's warmer, but they only live about two weeks.
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And sometimes they form big groups of thousands of midges.
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Ooh, I love summer!
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Party time!
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Yeah!
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Party, party!
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A summertime midge party! So festive!
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Total midge party. Scientists definitely don't have it all figured out, though.
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There's still so much to learn about these super tough
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Antarctic insects.
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That's so cool! So there are all different kinds of
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animals living in and around Antarctica, like penguins, seals, and
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even midges!
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Plus, there's one more creature we haven't talked about yet.
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Humans.
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Oh, yeah.
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Lots of scientists live and work on research stations in Antarctica.
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We'll talk more about that in a bit and meet
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an actual scientist who's worked on Antarctica. But first, it's
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time for the... Mystery Sound. You ready, Julianne? Yes. Here
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it is. What do you think?
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Sounds like a saw.
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Ooh, excellent guess. I have no idea what this is either.
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Should we hear it again?
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Yes.
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All right, let's hear it again. What do you think now? Hmm.
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Still a saw cutting wood.
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Still a saw. Okay. I love that guess. Well, we
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will hear it again, get another chance to guess, and
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hear the answer after the credits, so stick around. We
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are working on an episode about stringed instruments and how
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they all make unique sounds, from ukuleles and sitars to
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violins and guitars. For this episode, we want you to
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send us your own version of the Brains On theme song.
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You know... You could play it on the piano, bang
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it on a drum, strum it, beatbox it, or show
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us how it's sung. Maybe you want to write some lyrics?
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That's up to you.
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You don't have to do the whole thing. Add your
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own flair. Julian, if you could come up with your
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own version of the Brains On theme song, what would
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it be? How would you do it?
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It would be like a dog sparking and cats meowing.
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Oh, wow.
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I love that idea. Can you give me an example
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of what that might sound like? I love it. That
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is beautiful. That's a great idea. Well, listeners, please send
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us your theme song recordings at brainson.org slash contact. And
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while you're there, you can send us mystery sounds, drawings,
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and questions.
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Like this one. Do fishes have tongues?
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You can find an answer to this question on the
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Moment of Um podcast. It's a short dose of facts
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and fun every weekday. Find it wherever you listen to
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Brains On.
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So keep listening. Welcome back to Brains On. I'm Jillian.
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And I'm Molly. And today we're going sub-zero at the
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South Pole.
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Antarctica, a land of ice and snow, and also volcanoes?
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Where few things can survive, but somehow a hearty little
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flightless fly called the Antarctic Midge does all right there.
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And humans live there too, mostly scientists who live on
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research stations.
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Like Dr. Jennifer Mercer. She's a scientist with the National
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Science Foundation who has lived and worked in Antarctica. And
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she's here with us today.
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Hi, Dr.
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Mercer.
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Hi, Julian. Hi, Molly.
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What's it like living in Antarctica?
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It is breathtaking. I think you talked about that a
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little bit earlier.
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And it is breathtaking both in the literal sense when
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during the wintertime when it's really cold, it's hard to breathe.
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It's very, very cold air. It is spectacular visually.
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Because as far as you can see, and you can
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see very, very far, there are no trees in Antarctica.
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You can just see snow. snow and ice. And so
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it's just this amazing thing that you don't see anywhere else.
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Wow, that's so cool.
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Yeah, it really is.
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And I've been to Antarctica both in the summer and
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the winter. Their seasons are different down there since Antarctica
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is in the southern hemisphere. Summer in Antarctica is when
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we have our winter here in the United States or
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in North America. So when we have our winter, they're
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in summer. And when we are in summer, they're in winter.
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And their winter is totally dark.
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Wow.
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Isn't that cool?
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Yeah, it is. What kinds of food did you eat?
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Well, Julian, you're not going to believe this, but we
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get to eat a lot of candy and cookies, cookie bars,
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and sweets to stay warm. Because since it's so cold,
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your body needs more calories to stay warm when you're
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working outside.
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So I have never eaten so much candy in my life.
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Wow.
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That's cool. That's pretty amazing, huh?
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Yeah.
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And the other thing, besides cookies and candy, our New
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Zealand colleagues used to have this thing that we would
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always try to get our hands on to eat called
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a butter bar.
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And so it was like a cookie bar, but it
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had a lot of butter in it. And it was
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very delicious and kept you very warm.
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What did you have to wear outside to stay warm?
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Yeah, good question. It really depended on the weather and
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the time of year.
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In the Antarctic summer, it's really just like our winter
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here in North America. So clothes that you would wear
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maybe to go sledding or skiing, lots of layers. And
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in the summer, since it's sunny all day long, all
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24 hours of the day, it's sunny even at midnight,
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you have to make sure you wear.
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Sunglasses and sunscreen.
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In the winter, though, you have to wear even more
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clothes because it's so cold. And so I would wear really,
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really heavy boots and really, really big jacket. And then
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I would wear hats and gloves and layers. I think
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the most interesting thing in the winter is that because
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you're breathing into your layers of clothes, your eyelashes will
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get frost.
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On them and build up.
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So it's like little icicles on your eyelashes and they'll
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stick together. And so you're constantly kind of brushing your
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eyelashes off to get them to unstick. And I have
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been there when it's been so cold that even your
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snot freezes.
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Wow.
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What kind of research did you do there?
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So I was lucky enough. I worked in Antarctica for
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many years.
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And the very first time I went to Antarctica, I
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got to work in a place called the Dry Valleys,
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which is a place in Antarctica that doesn't have any
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snow on the ground. It's very, like it's named, dry,
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a lot of dust and rocks, and it's the closest
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thing we have on.
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Earth to Mars.
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So if you imagine pictures you've seen of Mars, the
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Mars landscape, it looks like that. And I was studying
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the soil in the Dry Valleys. But after that, then
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I worked for many years studying the ozone hole. The
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ozone layer is a shield over the Earth that absorbs
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a lot of the sun's ultraviolet radiation. And we would
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go in the winter and we would launch balloons all
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the way up into the stratosphere, which is the layer
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of the atmosphere that's above the troposphere.
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Where we live.
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So way up into the atmosphere, we'd launch these huge
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helium balloons to measure ozone and look at the changes
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each year in the ozone hole, which forms over Antarctica
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and the Arctic each year.
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Wow.
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What's one of the coolest things you saw or did there?
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Well.
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I got to visit the South Pole Station. I think
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that was pretty special.
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But maybe the most spectacular thing that I did was
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at the time of year we were there to study
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the ozone hole, there were also scientists there studying penguins.
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And so we got to go out to their research
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site one day and they, when they study penguins, they
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drill a hole in the ice and they put what's
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called an observation tube down into the ice. And so
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it's this metal tube that's open to the air above
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and you can climb down a ladder down in there
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and there's a window. So you get to sit down
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there in this tube and watch the penguins swimming underwater.
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And I think that's the coolest thing I did, probably.
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I'm curious to know what you and the other scientists
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did for fun when you weren't working.
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Yeah, that's also a good question. We work a lot
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because you're there. to accomplish your science work. And so
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oftentimes you find yourself working every day. But there used
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to be a bowling alley in McMurdo, and that was
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really fun.
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We watched movies.
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You can go for hikes, and hiking in Antarctica is
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pretty neat because you can hike up on these rocky
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hills and see even further.
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So things like that.
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Very cool. And when you were Julian's age, Julian, how
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old are you now? Nine. Okay. So when you were nine,
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were you interested in Antarctica or is that something that
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came later?
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I think that I was interested in the whole globe
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and all of the different places on the globe and
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just the different people across the globe when I was nine.
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But I will say that I always loved the snow.
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I grew up in South Dakota. I loved to ski
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and play in the snow. And my favorite when we
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had huge blizzards and then school would be canceled. So
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we could go outside and build snow forts. And that
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actually was very applicable to Because the first time I
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went to Antarctica, everybody goes down and you have to
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do survival training. And one of those things is to
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build something very similar to a snow fort so that
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if you ever get stuck out, you can build yourself
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a shelter and stay out of the wind.
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That's super cool. Well, thank you for taking the time
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to talk to us today. This is amazing. And I've
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learned so much.
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Thanks so much for talking with us, Dr.
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Mercer. It's been my pleasure, Julian. Thank you. And have
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a great day. Goodbye, everybody.
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00:21:04.619 --> 00:21:06.119
Bye, Dr. Mercer.
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Bye.
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00:21:06.920 --> 00:21:08.839
So that was so cool to be able to talk
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with someone who lived in Antarctica. Julian, do you think
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00:21:12.579 --> 00:21:15.240
you could spend six months at a research station there?
403
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Um, probably not because it would be very cold.
404
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Yeah.
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And you're like, I don't want to bundle up. You know,
406
00:21:25.900 --> 00:21:28.029
we say here in Minnesota, there's no such thing as
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bad weather, just bad clothes. You just need the right
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00:21:31.309 --> 00:21:34.569
clothes to get out there. So if you had to,
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what three things would you bring with you to keep
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yourself happy and healthy?
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A bag of snacks, a jacket, and a weather display
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that would tell me what the weather was and how
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cold it was.
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Smart.
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Dr.
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Mercer studied all sorts of things in Antarctica. Soil, the ozone.
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She met people who studied animals. There's so many different
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things to study there. So what would you want to
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00:22:00.839 --> 00:22:03.740
study if you lived on Antarctica?
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I would want to study penguins.
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Nice. You can look at that observation tube, see what's
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00:22:11.420 --> 00:22:14.579
down there. Would you like to swim with the penguins? Yeah.
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That would be pretty cool. One wild fact about Antarctica
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is that if you dig about 100 feet underground, you
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00:22:24.160 --> 00:22:28.920
can find traces of a tropical rainforest. Wait, what? Yeah,
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scientists have drilled deep into the icy continent and found
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fossils of all kinds of plants and animals, and it
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00:22:35.859 --> 00:22:40.480
gets weirder. Antarctica may be the reason there are kangaroos
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in Australia. Okay, I'm intrigued. Well, Julian, like Taylor Swift,
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00:22:46.609 --> 00:22:48.730
Antarctica has had many different eras.
431
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Looking for an unforgettable vacation destination with awe-inspiring views, sock-sogging swamps,
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00:22:56.430 --> 00:23:00.619
and towering trees that will make you shout, Timber! Then
433
00:23:00.660 --> 00:23:03.799
you need to visit Antarctica 90 million years ago.
434
00:23:03.819 --> 00:23:07.069
Antarctica 90 million years ago.
435
00:23:07.920 --> 00:23:10.880
Back before I went all Elsa and Frozen, Antarctica was
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a warm and wild paradise. For millions of years, palm trees, ferns,
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00:23:16.009 --> 00:23:18.329
and other plants you'd see at a fancy beach resort
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were just hanging out, living their best life on Antarctica.
439
00:23:22.470 --> 00:23:26.019
That's because 90 million years ago, the Earth was much warmer.
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So?
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In fact, scientists think Antarctica was about as warm as Italy. Buongiorno!
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Plants and animals survived there, even though, like today, it
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00:23:38.920 --> 00:23:41.720
was pretty dark for most of the winter. So go
444
00:23:41.740 --> 00:23:45.660
visit Antarctica 90 million years ago. What are you waiting for? Oh,
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00:23:47.589 --> 00:23:51.750
you're waiting for time travel to exist. Yeah, us too.
446
00:23:52.109 --> 00:23:53.849
Yeah, where's time travel?
447
00:23:54.710 --> 00:23:56.970
Paid for by the Invent Time Travel Now advocacy group.
448
00:23:57.650 --> 00:24:00.789
Not responsible for butterfly effects, time dilation, or accidentally stepping
449
00:24:00.829 --> 00:24:02.589
on an animal and wiping out all of existence in
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00:24:02.609 --> 00:24:03.029
the future.
451
00:24:05.529 --> 00:24:08.710
It wasn't just Antarctica that was warmer back then. The
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00:24:08.789 --> 00:24:11.809
whole planet was toastier, too. So it was a very
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different time all around.
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00:24:13.390 --> 00:24:18.130
Whoa, but back to the kangaroos. Were there kangaroos in Antarctica?
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I'm very invested in this.
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00:24:20.990 --> 00:24:25.190
Well, 90 million years ago, it wasn't just warmer. The
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00:24:25.230 --> 00:24:29.319
whole planet looked pretty different, too. That's because the colossal
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land masses we live on are always moving very slowly.
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We call these huge areas of land continents.
460
00:24:37.940 --> 00:24:40.829
I've heard of those. We live in a continent called
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North America.
462
00:24:42.349 --> 00:24:42.630
Yep.
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All of South America is a continent, too. Think of
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these as giant plates of rock that are always slowly
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grinding their way across the planet.
466
00:24:52.750 --> 00:24:53.210
Oh, yeah.
467
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That's called plate tectonics.
468
00:24:55.799 --> 00:24:58.039
It's the idea that all of the land we see
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is actually sitting on giant slabs of rock, and these
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giant rock plates very slowly slide around the globe. And
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many scientists think that around 90 million years ago, the
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giant rock slabs holding up South America, Antarctica, and Australia...
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were all connected.
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Whoa.
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Today, South America and Australia are very far apart and
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separated by lots of water.
477
00:25:23.710 --> 00:25:24.759
I know.
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But back then, they were pretty much holding hands. Scientists
479
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think at that time, animals would travel between South America
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and Australia. They'd use Antarctica kind of like a land bridge.
481
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The journey might have taken several generations, but that's one
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00:25:39.200 --> 00:25:42.990
way creatures spread from east to west. Scientists think one
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type of animal that did this are marsupials.
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Like kangaroos and koalas and possums. They're animals that often
485
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have pouches for their babies to live in.
486
00:25:54.619 --> 00:25:55.160
Exactly.
487
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Scientists have found fossils that tell us marsupials first showed
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up in South America. But over time, they shuffled across
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Antarctica and ended up settling down in Australia too. Some
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of those evolved into kangaroos. So without Antarctica, no kangaroos.
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Crikey!
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00:26:13.509 --> 00:26:16.579
So what happened? Why was it so warm back then
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and so cold there now?
494
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Excellent question. It's something scientists are still trying to figure out.
495
00:26:23.680 --> 00:26:26.059
They think back then there was a lot more carbon
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dioxide in the air.
497
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That's one of the greenhouse gases that's causing climate change today.
498
00:26:32.099 --> 00:26:36.380
It's released by burning fossil fuels like gasoline in our cars.
499
00:26:36.759 --> 00:26:37.240
Exactly.
500
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It can be released naturally too, like from volcanoes. Back then,
501
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there was a lot of that gas in the sky,
502
00:26:44.079 --> 00:26:46.819
way more than right now, and the planet got so
503
00:26:46.859 --> 00:26:49.920
warm that even at the poles, things were pretty toasty.
504
00:26:50.519 --> 00:26:54.160
Sea levels were probably 200 feet higher than they are now.
505
00:26:54.829 --> 00:26:58.269
Scientists aren't exactly sure what caused all that carbon dioxide
506
00:26:58.309 --> 00:26:59.630
gas to show up at that time.
507
00:27:00.089 --> 00:27:05.049
It wasn't from dinosaurs driving cars or running coal-burning factories?
508
00:27:05.569 --> 00:27:08.910
Nope, but we do know over time, the amount of
509
00:27:08.990 --> 00:27:12.930
carbon dioxide in the sky started dropping. The planet cooled down,
510
00:27:13.309 --> 00:27:17.289
and somewhere around 30 to 60 million years ago, ice
511
00:27:17.349 --> 00:27:19.039
caps formed in Antarctica.
512
00:27:19.410 --> 00:27:24.400
Then comes the ice, cold, and nice. But Molly, Antarctica
513
00:27:24.460 --> 00:27:26.519
is changing again, right?
514
00:27:27.160 --> 00:27:31.460
Yes. That chilly wonderland is heating up again. But this time,
515
00:27:31.579 --> 00:27:34.359
we know the cause. Humans are releasing a lot of
516
00:27:34.400 --> 00:27:37.369
greenhouse gases into the air, and just like before, they're
517
00:27:37.400 --> 00:27:40.900
warming the planet. But it's happening a lot quicker than
518
00:27:40.960 --> 00:27:43.980
last time, which makes it really hard for the plants
519
00:27:44.039 --> 00:27:45.900
and animals alive right now to adjust.
520
00:27:46.279 --> 00:27:49.539
Yeah, and as things warm up, the ice melts.
521
00:27:50.279 --> 00:27:53.900
Over the last 20 years, on average, Antarctica lost about
522
00:27:53.900 --> 00:27:56.009
145 gigatons of ice a year. How much is that?
523
00:27:59.319 --> 00:28:03.579
Molly, I happen to be a gigaton expert. One gigaton
524
00:28:03.619 --> 00:28:07.809
of ice is enough to cover New York City's Central
525
00:28:07.890 --> 00:28:11.250
Park in a block of ice that's 10 stories tall.
526
00:28:11.650 --> 00:28:16.470
Now imagine 145 of these huge blocks of ice. That's
527
00:28:16.470 --> 00:28:18.539
145 gigatons.
528
00:28:18.950 --> 00:28:21.819
That is a lot of ice. And that's how much
529
00:28:21.859 --> 00:28:25.420
of Antarctica's ice is melting every year. So things are
530
00:28:25.500 --> 00:28:25.980
changing fast.
531
00:28:28.250 --> 00:28:32.089
Looking for an unforgettable vacation destination that's a crucial part
532
00:28:32.109 --> 00:28:35.430
of our planet's climate? A place with so much ice
533
00:28:35.670 --> 00:28:39.099
that if it all melted, sea levels would rise dramatically?
534
00:28:39.119 --> 00:28:42.319
A place that's home to unique species like penguins and
535
00:28:42.359 --> 00:28:47.509
leopard seals and midges? Visit Antarctica. The ice caps there
536
00:28:47.569 --> 00:28:51.369
are both magnificent and super important. So let's keep them
537
00:28:51.450 --> 00:28:55.450
nice and icy by cutting down on fossil fuels, by
538
00:28:55.509 --> 00:28:58.910
turning to renewable sources of energy like solar or wind,
539
00:28:59.390 --> 00:29:01.930
and by asking our leaders to do everything they can
540
00:29:01.990 --> 00:29:03.450
to fight climate change.
541
00:29:03.470 --> 00:29:04.630
Fight it now.
542
00:29:05.440 --> 00:29:10.059
After all, what's good for Antarctica is good for the planet. Antarctica,
543
00:29:10.319 --> 00:29:13.059
a place too cold for most people, but just right
544
00:29:13.339 --> 00:29:13.900
for the Earth.
545
00:29:14.500 --> 00:29:17.089
Paid for by the Midges of Antarctica. We're tiny bugs
546
00:29:17.130 --> 00:29:19.720
with big dreams of curbing climate change. If you visit,
547
00:29:19.900 --> 00:29:20.680
please don't step on us.
548
00:29:27.599 --> 00:29:31.140
Antarctica is a vast and wild place, home to super
549
00:29:31.180 --> 00:29:34.529
thick ice sheets, volcanoes, and some of the coldest temperatures
550
00:29:34.710 --> 00:29:35.029
on Earth.
551
00:29:35.589 --> 00:29:39.450
All kinds of creatures live there, including a super tough
552
00:29:39.769 --> 00:29:42.680
little insect called the Antarctic midge.
553
00:29:43.299 --> 00:29:46.559
It's really cold there now, but 90 million years ago,
554
00:29:46.779 --> 00:29:50.190
Antarctica was a warm and tropical place covered in palm
555
00:29:50.250 --> 00:29:51.390
trees and ferns.
556
00:29:52.009 --> 00:29:55.390
And it's getting warm again because of climate change, and
557
00:29:55.450 --> 00:29:58.269
that's causing ice in Antarctica to melt.
558
00:29:58.950 --> 00:30:01.089
That's it for this episode of Brains On.
559
00:30:01.990 --> 00:30:06.740
This episode was written by Shayla Farzan and Sandin Totten
560
00:30:07.039 --> 00:30:12.380
and edited by Molly Loom and produced by Rosie DuPont.
561
00:30:12.900 --> 00:30:16.339
Backtracking by Nico Gonzalez-Whistler.
562
00:30:16.740 --> 00:30:19.500
We had engineering help from Derek Ramirez, Dave Walton, and
563
00:30:19.539 --> 00:30:22.480
Pam Holland with sound design by Rachel Breeze, original theme
564
00:30:22.500 --> 00:30:25.609
music by Mark Sanchez. Beth Perlman is our executive producer.
565
00:30:25.940 --> 00:30:28.309
And the executives in charge of APM Studios are Chandra
566
00:30:28.329 --> 00:30:32.670
Kavati and Joanne Griffith. Special thanks to Jennifer Mercer, Cassandra Eichner,
567
00:30:32.930 --> 00:30:36.369
Rebecca Erie, and Jonathan Irish. We had production help from
568
00:30:36.410 --> 00:30:39.190
the rest of the Brains on Universe team. Anna Goldfield,
569
00:30:39.410 --> 00:30:43.400
Ruby Guthrie, Lauren Humpert, Joshua Ray, Mark Sanchez, Charlotte Traver,
570
00:30:43.559 --> 00:30:45.460
Anna Weigel, and Adarone Woldeslassie.
571
00:30:45.849 --> 00:30:49.440
Brains On is a non-profit public radio program.
572
00:30:49.680 --> 00:30:51.960
There are lots of ways to support the show. Subscribe
573
00:30:52.000 --> 00:30:54.440
to Brains On Universe on YouTube, where you can watch
574
00:30:54.599 --> 00:30:58.000
animated versions of some of your favorite episodes. Or head
575
00:30:58.019 --> 00:30:59.460
to BrainsOn.org.
576
00:30:59.759 --> 00:31:03.289
While you're there, you can send us mystery sounds, drawings,
577
00:31:03.589 --> 00:31:04.670
and questions!
578
00:31:05.849 --> 00:31:09.109
Okay, Julian, are you ready to hear the mystery sound again?
579
00:31:09.470 --> 00:31:09.769
Yes.
580
00:31:10.410 --> 00:31:24.279
Wonderful. Here it is. Okay, what do you think? Last
581
00:31:24.299 --> 00:31:26.400
time you thought it was a saw. Do you have
582
00:31:26.480 --> 00:31:27.000
new thoughts?
583
00:31:28.480 --> 00:31:30.119
I still think it's a saw.
584
00:31:30.589 --> 00:31:33.190
Okay, I'm going to say I think it's a saw too,
585
00:31:33.549 --> 00:31:38.289
but it sounds like a tiny saw. So maybe the
586
00:31:38.329 --> 00:31:42.130
cats and dogs that listen to Brains On are using
587
00:31:42.150 --> 00:31:46.339
their tiny saws to build a parade float dedicated to
588
00:31:46.359 --> 00:31:47.339
Brains On. What do you think?
589
00:31:49.099 --> 00:31:49.960
I think so.
590
00:31:50.579 --> 00:31:53.980
Okay, great. You ready to hear the answer?
591
00:31:54.460 --> 00:31:54.740
Yes.
592
00:31:55.079 --> 00:31:56.140
Okay, let's hear it.
593
00:31:56.619 --> 00:31:59.670
Hi, my name is Luca and I live in Switzerland.
594
00:31:59.970 --> 00:32:02.569
That was the sound of my mother twisting her feet
595
00:32:03.089 --> 00:32:06.509
while wearing sneakers on the wet floor of a parking garage.
596
00:32:07.329 --> 00:32:11.589
Oh my goodness. Oh my gosh. We were not close.
597
00:32:11.869 --> 00:32:12.029
No.
598
00:32:15.480 --> 00:32:18.859
Twisting wet sneakers on the floor of a parking garage.
599
00:32:19.299 --> 00:32:22.069
That is a really tricky mystery sound. Good job, Luca.
600
00:32:22.170 --> 00:32:36.460
You stumped us. Completely. Now it's time for the Brain's
601
00:32:36.539 --> 00:32:38.680
Honor Roll. These are the kids who keep the show
602
00:32:38.700 --> 00:32:41.799
going with their questions, ideas, mystery sounds, drawings, and high fives.
603
00:32:42.819 --> 00:32:45.900
Ezra from Charlotte, North Carolina. Eitan from Jerusalem. Daniel from
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00:32:45.920 --> 00:32:49.049
Clifton Park, New York. Domingo and Javier from Reston, Virginia.
605
00:32:49.369 --> 00:32:52.890
Xander from Kingsburg, California. Maya from Israel. Jane from Pennsylvania.
606
00:32:53.230 --> 00:32:57.650
Samira from the Netherlands. Callie from Briar, Washington. Aria from Windsor, Ontario.
607
00:32:57.730 --> 00:33:01.759
Gio from Waterloo, Ontario. Kevin from Canaan, Connecticut. Owen from Chicago.
608
00:33:01.859 --> 00:33:05.579
Jace from Lutz, Florida. Ben from Sydney, Australia. Raj from Annapolis, Maryland.
609
00:33:05.599 --> 00:33:08.259
Graham from Dallas, Texas. Mark from Columbus, Ohio. Alex from
610
00:33:08.299 --> 00:33:12.519
Los Altos, California. Eliza from Budapest. August from Cary, North Carolina.
611
00:33:12.599 --> 00:33:16.980
Logan from Vallejo, California. Simona from Vancouver. Arella from Bothell, Washington.
612
00:33:17.059 --> 00:33:20.920
Nemo from Woodbury, Minnesota. London from Marysville, Ohio. Simon from Virginia.
613
00:33:20.980 --> 00:33:24.259
Jack from Missoula, Montana. Matthias from Carmel, California. Josie from
614
00:33:24.319 --> 00:33:27.420
Port Angeles, Washington. Colette from Portland, Oregon. Ivy from Denver.
615
00:33:27.440 --> 00:33:30.890
Melody from Mississauga, Ontario. Sabella from Austin, Texas. Arthur and
616
00:33:30.950 --> 00:33:35.210
Alice from Irvine, California. Ellie from Calgary, Alberta. Marie from Aberdeen, UK.
617
00:33:35.289 --> 00:33:39.339
Miles from Tucson, Arizona. Abram, Liam, and Johannes from Los Alamitos, California.
618
00:33:39.740 --> 00:33:43.440
Delilah from Phoenix. Charlie from Red Rock, Ontario. Jay from Orange, California.
619
00:33:43.480 --> 00:33:47.240
Jasper from Burbank, California. Leo from Seattle. Navi from Hillsborough, Oregon.
620
00:33:47.700 --> 00:33:51.250
James from Harpenden, England, Galilee and Eden from Pleasant Hill, California,
621
00:33:51.710 --> 00:33:55.309
Ade and Amal from Somerville, Massachusetts, Leo and Miles from Goshen, Ohio,
622
00:33:55.670 --> 00:33:58.990
Lyra from Portland, Oregon, Everett and Amelia from Bakersfield, California,
623
00:33:59.349 --> 00:34:02.569
Cooper from Boise, Idaho, Rain from Bluffdale, Utah, Greta and
624
00:34:02.630 --> 00:34:06.859
Arthur from Dallas, Dakota from Ambler, Pennsylvania, Caleb from Drayton Valley, Canada,
625
00:34:07.160 --> 00:34:11.059
Nora from Victoria, British Columbia, Clara, Olivia, Sophie from Grand Prairie, Alberta,
626
00:34:11.440 --> 00:34:15.340
Presley from Joplin, Missouri, Addison from Bloomington, Illinois, Jaron from Oakland, California,
627
00:34:15.380 --> 00:34:25.610
and Penelope from Aliso, Vallejo, California. We'll be back next
628
00:34:25.630 --> 00:34:28.110
week with an episode all about building a house on
629
00:34:28.150 --> 00:34:28.590
the moon.
630
00:34:28.889 --> 00:34:30.250
Thanks for listening.
1
00:00:06.650 --> 00:00:10.710
You're listening to Brains On, where we're serious about being curious.
2
00:00:11.310 --> 00:00:14.939
Brains On is supported in part by a grant from
3
00:00:15.000 --> 00:00:17.260
the National Science Foundation.
4
00:00:18.760 --> 00:00:20.620
Hey, Molly. Hey, Julian.
5
00:00:20.640 --> 00:00:21.559
Hi, Bob.
6
00:00:21.980 --> 00:00:24.260
Beautiful day today, isn't it?
7
00:00:24.640 --> 00:00:26.879
Wow, Bob, you're in a great mood. Were you watching
8
00:00:26.920 --> 00:00:27.789
paint dry again?
9
00:00:27.800 --> 00:00:29.809
Or waiting for a pot of water to boil?
10
00:00:30.600 --> 00:00:35.079
Two of my favorite things. I actually spent all day
11
00:00:35.640 --> 00:00:37.679
at a Taylor Swift concert.
12
00:00:37.939 --> 00:00:39.159
Whoa, seriously?
13
00:00:39.420 --> 00:00:42.329
That's awesome. Yeah, that's amazing.
14
00:00:42.689 --> 00:00:46.250
Yes, and here's the best part. I was at a
15
00:00:46.289 --> 00:00:51.409
Taylor Swift concert standing in line. The line moves a
16
00:00:51.450 --> 00:00:53.619
little at a time, and then when you get to
17
00:00:53.659 --> 00:00:56.640
the front, you can just go back to the end
18
00:00:56.740 --> 00:01:00.960
and start all over again. No one stops you, and
19
00:01:01.179 --> 00:01:03.799
you don't even need tickets for the line. You want
20
00:01:03.840 --> 00:01:04.900
to go check it out with me?
21
00:01:05.530 --> 00:01:08.069
Actually, we're just about to tape an episode, and we're
22
00:01:08.510 --> 00:01:10.269
snow excited about it.
23
00:01:10.269 --> 00:01:13.590
Yeah, it's going to be pretty cool, if you know
24
00:01:13.650 --> 00:01:14.250
what I mean.
25
00:01:14.769 --> 00:01:18.870
Oh, let me guess. Is it about frozen corn? I
26
00:01:19.049 --> 00:01:22.250
love frozen corn. Plain, no salt.
27
00:01:22.790 --> 00:01:26.230
Excellent guess, but no. We're trying to chill out, and
28
00:01:26.250 --> 00:01:30.310
we just can't because the topic we're discussing today is brilliant.
29
00:01:30.730 --> 00:01:36.189
We're not southpolling your leg. It's going to give you goosebumps.
30
00:01:36.859 --> 00:01:40.000
I know.
31
00:01:40.019 --> 00:01:42.019
32
00:01:42.060 --> 00:01:45.480
33
00:01:45.599 --> 00:01:48.579
That's nippy.
34
00:01:49.099 --> 00:01:53.359
Not quite, but don't worry, Bob. We're not penguining to
35
00:01:53.420 --> 00:01:55.879
feel frost-trated.
36
00:01:56.420 --> 00:01:57.379
Penguins?
37
00:01:57.859 --> 00:02:00.060
Frost? Cold?
38
00:02:01.280 --> 00:02:03.980
Oh, I give up. What is it?
39
00:02:04.439 --> 00:02:08.460
Today's episode is all about... Antarctica!
40
00:02:09.240 --> 00:02:11.870
Ah, Antarctica. Very fun.
41
00:02:12.620 --> 00:02:13.310
Very fun.
42
00:02:14.150 --> 00:02:18.250
But maybe next time, an episode about plain frozen corn?
43
00:02:18.889 --> 00:02:23.370
Or how about room temperature water? Or standing in a
44
00:02:23.449 --> 00:02:27.900
really long line? Oh, no, no. Standing in a really
45
00:02:27.960 --> 00:02:33.259
long line drinking a glass of room temperature water. That's it!
46
00:02:38.819 --> 00:02:41.960
You're listening to Brains On from APM Studios. I'm Molly Bloom,
47
00:02:42.039 --> 00:02:46.659
and my co-host today is Julian from Nashville, Tennessee. Hi, Julian.
48
00:02:46.860 --> 00:02:47.580
Hi, Molly.
49
00:02:48.000 --> 00:02:50.319
We are so glad you're here today because we're talking
50
00:02:50.439 --> 00:02:54.770
all about Antarctica, that amazing and mysterious continent on the
51
00:02:54.849 --> 00:02:57.949
Earth's South Pole. You sent in a question to us
52
00:02:58.009 --> 00:02:58.729
about it, right, Julian?
53
00:02:58.750 --> 00:02:58.830
Yeah.
54
00:02:59.129 --> 00:03:02.819
Yeah, I wanted to know whether there are any insects
55
00:03:02.919 --> 00:03:04.000
on Antarctica.
56
00:03:04.520 --> 00:03:07.389
A great question. What made you think of it?
57
00:03:07.879 --> 00:03:10.960
What made me think of it is that we have
58
00:03:11.000 --> 00:03:13.900
a lot of insects in summer, and I wanted to
59
00:03:13.960 --> 00:03:16.120
know if cold places had them too.
60
00:03:16.780 --> 00:03:19.479
Excellent question. Do you have a favorite insect?
61
00:03:20.719 --> 00:03:21.620
A butterfly.
62
00:03:21.650 --> 00:03:23.849
Do you have a favorite butterfly?
63
00:03:24.229 --> 00:03:25.449
Probably a monarch.
64
00:03:26.169 --> 00:03:26.569
Oh, yeah.
65
00:03:26.650 --> 00:03:29.610
They are so beautiful. So would you like to visit
66
00:03:29.710 --> 00:03:30.669
Antarctica if you could?
67
00:03:31.159 --> 00:03:35.020
Yes, because I would get to see penguins.
68
00:03:35.500 --> 00:03:37.840
That would be really fun. What is your favorite thing
69
00:03:37.860 --> 00:03:38.439
about penguins?
70
00:03:38.800 --> 00:03:44.419
My favorite thing about penguins is that they can survive
71
00:03:44.479 --> 00:03:45.560
in Antarctica.
72
00:03:46.939 --> 00:03:50.099
So would you rather be really cold or really hot?
73
00:03:50.900 --> 00:03:51.699
Really cold.
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00:03:51.719 --> 00:03:53.460
Okay. Why?
75
00:03:53.479 --> 00:03:53.550
Why?
76
00:03:53.889 --> 00:03:56.530
Because I would get to play in the snow.
77
00:03:56.550 --> 00:04:00.060
Ah, yes. I love to play in the snow. What's
78
00:04:00.080 --> 00:04:01.639
your favorite snow activity?
79
00:04:01.659 --> 00:04:03.819
Um, snowball fight.
80
00:04:04.900 --> 00:04:08.659
Oh, very good. So when you think of Antarctica, you
81
00:04:08.719 --> 00:04:11.280
might imagine a place with tons and tons of snow
82
00:04:11.560 --> 00:04:12.310
and not much else.
83
00:04:12.889 --> 00:04:16.389
But that's not the case. There's actually very little snow there.
84
00:04:16.970 --> 00:04:18.269
It's mostly ice.
85
00:04:18.889 --> 00:04:21.550
And there are lots of other really cool things.
86
00:04:23.170 --> 00:04:28.240
Looking for an unforgettable vacation destination with awe-inspiring views, butchy,
87
00:04:28.269 --> 00:04:32.019
clenching temperatures, and sub-zero mountain breezes that will literally take
88
00:04:32.040 --> 00:04:35.279
your breath away? Then you need to visit Antarctica.
89
00:04:35.300 --> 00:04:36.199
Antarctica.
90
00:04:37.060 --> 00:04:39.639
Do you turn your nose up at sunny beaches, poo-poo
91
00:04:39.680 --> 00:04:43.259
swimming pools? Then come to Antarctica, where the temperature plummets
92
00:04:43.319 --> 00:04:48.490
to minus 76 degrees Fahrenheit in the winter. And when
93
00:04:48.529 --> 00:04:51.810
you're chilly, warm up to one of our boiling hot volcanoes.
94
00:04:53.199 --> 00:04:56.439
Or maybe you like super dry places. Well, you're in
95
00:04:56.480 --> 00:04:59.959
luck because Antarctica is one of the driest places on Earth.
96
00:05:00.240 --> 00:05:03.730
That's right, it's actually a giant desert. It only gets
97
00:05:03.759 --> 00:05:05.990
a couple inches of snow every year.
98
00:05:06.009 --> 00:05:07.189
Antarctica.
99
00:05:08.170 --> 00:05:11.850
One thing that Antarctica does have, ice ice baby. The
100
00:05:11.930 --> 00:05:14.629
Antarctic ice sheet is bigger than the United States and
101
00:05:14.810 --> 00:05:16.170
Mexico combined.
102
00:05:16.189 --> 00:05:17.819
Wow, so big.
103
00:05:18.860 --> 00:05:22.209
In some spots, the ice is almost three miles thick.
104
00:05:22.649 --> 00:05:25.990
Just think of all the winter sport possibilities. Ice skating,
105
00:05:26.329 --> 00:05:29.769
ice dancing, ice skateboarding, and of course, ice ping pong.
106
00:05:30.230 --> 00:05:33.029
And with six months of nonstop daylight every year, you'll
107
00:05:33.069 --> 00:05:34.069
never have to stop playing.
108
00:05:35.009 --> 00:05:39.220
Antarctica. Paid for by the Antarctica Tourism Bureau. Not responsible
109
00:05:39.259 --> 00:05:41.720
for frostbite, butt cheek tension due to prolonged clenching or
110
00:05:41.879 --> 00:05:42.839
ice ping pong injuries.
111
00:05:44.680 --> 00:05:46.579
Ice ping pong sounds awesome.
112
00:05:46.879 --> 00:05:51.279
Totally. Antarctica is an extreme place full of huge mountains,
113
00:05:51.680 --> 00:05:54.139
super thick ice, and active volcanoes.
114
00:05:54.709 --> 00:05:58.250
It has some of the harshest conditions on Earth. In fact,
115
00:05:58.329 --> 00:06:03.250
the coldest temperature ever recorded on our planet was in Antarctica.
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Yeah.
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Back in 2018, the temperature reached minus 144 degrees Fahrenheit there.
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For comparison, the freezer in your house is usually set
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to about zero degrees, so this was much colder. Much colder.
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You might be wondering, what can possibly survive in such
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a dry, cold place? The answer is lots of stuff.
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Along the coast of Antarctica, the temperatures are a little
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more mild. In the summer, it can get a little
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above freezing, which means different things can grow there, like moss, algae,
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and even lichen. Lichen is that funky green and white
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stuff that sometimes grows on tree bark.
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And there's also a bunch of different kinds of marine
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life on the coast.
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Like penguins.
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Eight different kinds of whales.
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Giant schools of krill, which look like tiny shrimp and
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feed all sorts of different sea creatures.
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And even fierce leopard seals.
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One thing Antarctica doesn't have? Polar bears.
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Polar bears are only found in the Arctic, near the
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North Pole. Remember, Antarctica is on the South Pole, the
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other side of the planet. Right.
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If you were looking at a world globe, Antarctica would
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be on the bottom. A lot of the creatures that
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live in Antarctica have special characteristics that help them survive
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the cold temperatures, like thick layers of blubber and fur
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to keep them warm.
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But what about insects? I'm picturing an insect with blubber.
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And it's kind of cute, but doesn't seem likely.
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Yes, you're correct. No insects with blubber, but there are
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insects on Antarctica. Well, I should say there is one
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insect that we know of that can survive outside on
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mainland Antarctica. It's called, drumroll please, the Antarctic midge. A midge?
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Isn't that like a tiny fly?
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It sure is. But this isn't just any tiny fly.
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It's an extraordinary tiny fly. First of all, even though
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it's technically a fly, it's flightless, meaning it can't actually fly.
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Okay, not what I was expecting, but go on.
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And even though it's so small, it's actually Antarctica's biggest
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land animal. That's because hardly any animals spend their entire
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lives on land there.
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Right. The other animals we talked about earlier... like seals
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and penguins spend part of their lives in the water.
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Back to the Antarctic midge. The adults have shiny black
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bodies with big eyes and fluffy antennae on their heads
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that look like feather dusters. And like we mentioned, they're
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teeny tiny, only about one-eighth of an inch long.
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That's like half the width of a pencil eraser.
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But here's the really impressive thing about this insect. It
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spends about nine months of the year frozen solid.
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Like a super small fly popsicle?
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Exactly. The babies that eventually grow into the adult flies
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are little purple wriggly grubs called larvae, and they're super survivors.
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They can live up to a month without oxygen and
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survive temperatures as cold as 5 degrees Fahrenheit.
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Whoa, that's one tough insect, but it can get way
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colder than 5 degrees in Antarctica.
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How does they survive?
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Scientists think part of it is where they live. The
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baby grubs live underground for almost two years.
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That makes sense. It's usually warmer underground, away from.
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The cold air. Another thing the midge has going for
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it is its ability to dry out. The baby grubs
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can lose almost three-quarters of the water in their bodies.
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And without as much water in their bodies, they're less
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likely to freeze.
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It's like they turn into little raisins and that helps
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protect them from the cold.
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Yes. They also make special chemicals in their bodies that
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keep them from freezing. almost like the antifreeze chemicals we
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use in our cars.
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Okay, you've convinced me. The baby midges are totally awesome.
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But what about the adults? What's their deal?
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Well, the adult midges emerge from the ground in the
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summertime when it's warmer, but they only live about two weeks.
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And sometimes they form big groups of thousands of midges.
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Ooh, I love summer!
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Party time!
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Yeah!
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Party, party!
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A summertime midge party! So festive!
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Total midge party. Scientists definitely don't have it all figured out, though.
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There's still so much to learn about these super tough
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Antarctic insects.
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That's so cool! So there are all different kinds of
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animals living in and around Antarctica, like penguins, seals, and
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even midges!
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Plus, there's one more creature we haven't talked about yet.
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Humans.
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Oh, yeah.
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Lots of scientists live and work on research stations in Antarctica.
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We'll talk more about that in a bit and meet
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an actual scientist who's worked on Antarctica. But first, it's
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time for the... Mystery Sound. You ready, Julianne? Yes. Here
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it is. What do you think?
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Sounds like a saw.
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Ooh, excellent guess. I have no idea what this is either.
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Should we hear it again?
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Yes.
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All right, let's hear it again. What do you think now? Hmm.
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Still a saw cutting wood.
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Still a saw. Okay. I love that guess. Well, we
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will hear it again, get another chance to guess, and
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hear the answer after the credits, so stick around. We
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are working on an episode about stringed instruments and how
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they all make unique sounds, from ukuleles and sitars to
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violins and guitars. For this episode, we want you to
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send us your own version of the Brains On theme song.
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You know... You could play it on the piano, bang
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it on a drum, strum it, beatbox it, or show
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us how it's sung. Maybe you want to write some lyrics?
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That's up to you.
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You don't have to do the whole thing. Add your
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own flair. Julian, if you could come up with your
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own version of the Brains On theme song, what would
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it be? How would you do it?
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It would be like a dog sparking and cats meowing.
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Oh, wow.
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I love that idea. Can you give me an example
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of what that might sound like? I love it. That
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is beautiful. That's a great idea. Well, listeners, please send
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us your theme song recordings at brainson.org slash contact. And
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while you're there, you can send us mystery sounds, drawings,
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and questions.
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Like this one. Do fishes have tongues?
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You can find an answer to this question on the
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Moment of Um podcast. It's a short dose of facts
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and fun every weekday. Find it wherever you listen to
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Brains On.
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So keep listening. Welcome back to Brains On. I'm Jillian.
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And I'm Molly. And today we're going sub-zero at the
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South Pole.
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Antarctica, a land of ice and snow, and also volcanoes?
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Where few things can survive, but somehow a hearty little
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flightless fly called the Antarctic Midge does all right there.
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And humans live there too, mostly scientists who live on
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research stations.
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Like Dr. Jennifer Mercer. She's a scientist with the National
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Science Foundation who has lived and worked in Antarctica. And
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she's here with us today.
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Hi, Dr.
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Mercer.
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Hi, Julian. Hi, Molly.
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What's it like living in Antarctica?
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It is breathtaking. I think you talked about that a
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little bit earlier.
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And it is breathtaking both in the literal sense when
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during the wintertime when it's really cold, it's hard to breathe.
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It's very, very cold air. It is spectacular visually.
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Because as far as you can see, and you can
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see very, very far, there are no trees in Antarctica.
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You can just see snow. snow and ice. And so
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it's just this amazing thing that you don't see anywhere else.
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Wow, that's so cool.
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Yeah, it really is.
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And I've been to Antarctica both in the summer and
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the winter. Their seasons are different down there since Antarctica
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is in the southern hemisphere. Summer in Antarctica is when
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we have our winter here in the United States or
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in North America. So when we have our winter, they're
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in summer. And when we are in summer, they're in winter.
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And their winter is totally dark.
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Wow.
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Isn't that cool?
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Yeah, it is. What kinds of food did you eat?
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Well, Julian, you're not going to believe this, but we
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get to eat a lot of candy and cookies, cookie bars,
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and sweets to stay warm. Because since it's so cold,
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your body needs more calories to stay warm when you're
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working outside.
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So I have never eaten so much candy in my life.
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Wow.
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That's cool. That's pretty amazing, huh?
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Yeah.
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And the other thing, besides cookies and candy, our New
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Zealand colleagues used to have this thing that we would
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always try to get our hands on to eat called
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a butter bar.
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And so it was like a cookie bar, but it
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had a lot of butter in it. And it was
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very delicious and kept you very warm.
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What did you have to wear outside to stay warm?
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Yeah, good question. It really depended on the weather and
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the time of year.
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In the Antarctic summer, it's really just like our winter
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here in North America. So clothes that you would wear
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maybe to go sledding or skiing, lots of layers. And
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in the summer, since it's sunny all day long, all
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24 hours of the day, it's sunny even at midnight,
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you have to make sure you wear.
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Sunglasses and sunscreen.
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In the winter, though, you have to wear even more
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clothes because it's so cold. And so I would wear really,
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really heavy boots and really, really big jacket. And then
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I would wear hats and gloves and layers. I think
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the most interesting thing in the winter is that because
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you're breathing into your layers of clothes, your eyelashes will
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get frost.
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On them and build up.
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So it's like little icicles on your eyelashes and they'll
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stick together. And so you're constantly kind of brushing your
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eyelashes off to get them to unstick. And I have
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been there when it's been so cold that even your
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snot freezes.
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Wow.
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What kind of research did you do there?
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So I was lucky enough. I worked in Antarctica for
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many years.
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And the very first time I went to Antarctica, I
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got to work in a place called the Dry Valleys,
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which is a place in Antarctica that doesn't have any
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snow on the ground. It's very, like it's named, dry,
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a lot of dust and rocks, and it's the closest
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thing we have on.
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Earth to Mars.
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So if you imagine pictures you've seen of Mars, the
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Mars landscape, it looks like that. And I was studying
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the soil in the Dry Valleys. But after that, then
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I worked for many years studying the ozone hole. The
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ozone layer is a shield over the Earth that absorbs
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a lot of the sun's ultraviolet radiation. And we would
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go in the winter and we would launch balloons all
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the way up into the stratosphere, which is the layer
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of the atmosphere that's above the troposphere.
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Where we live.
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So way up into the atmosphere, we'd launch these huge
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helium balloons to measure ozone and look at the changes
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each year in the ozone hole, which forms over Antarctica
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and the Arctic each year.
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Wow.
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What's one of the coolest things you saw or did there?
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Well.
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I got to visit the South Pole Station. I think
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that was pretty special.
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But maybe the most spectacular thing that I did was
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at the time of year we were there to study
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the ozone hole, there were also scientists there studying penguins.
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And so we got to go out to their research
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site one day and they, when they study penguins, they
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drill a hole in the ice and they put what's
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called an observation tube down into the ice. And so
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it's this metal tube that's open to the air above
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and you can climb down a ladder down in there
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and there's a window. So you get to sit down
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there in this tube and watch the penguins swimming underwater.
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And I think that's the coolest thing I did, probably.
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I'm curious to know what you and the other scientists
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did for fun when you weren't working.
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Yeah, that's also a good question. We work a lot
365
00:19:21.529 --> 00:19:26.470
because you're there. to accomplish your science work. And so
366
00:19:26.609 --> 00:19:31.220
oftentimes you find yourself working every day. But there used
367
00:19:31.240 --> 00:19:33.799
to be a bowling alley in McMurdo, and that was
368
00:19:33.859 --> 00:19:34.440
really fun.
369
00:19:34.460 --> 00:19:36.859
We watched movies.
370
00:19:36.960 --> 00:19:39.740
You can go for hikes, and hiking in Antarctica is
371
00:19:40.339 --> 00:19:43.269
pretty neat because you can hike up on these rocky
372
00:19:43.309 --> 00:19:45.190
hills and see even further.
373
00:19:45.210 --> 00:19:47.470
So things like that.
374
00:19:47.950 --> 00:19:50.730
Very cool. And when you were Julian's age, Julian, how
375
00:19:50.789 --> 00:19:53.569
old are you now? Nine. Okay. So when you were nine,
376
00:19:54.069 --> 00:19:57.539
were you interested in Antarctica or is that something that
377
00:19:57.579 --> 00:19:58.539
came later?
378
00:19:59.119 --> 00:20:04.779
I think that I was interested in the whole globe
379
00:20:05.119 --> 00:20:08.819
and all of the different places on the globe and
380
00:20:09.200 --> 00:20:13.960
just the different people across the globe when I was nine.
381
00:20:14.500 --> 00:20:17.700
But I will say that I always loved the snow.
382
00:20:18.170 --> 00:20:20.690
I grew up in South Dakota. I loved to ski
383
00:20:20.710 --> 00:20:24.269
and play in the snow. And my favorite when we
384
00:20:24.309 --> 00:20:27.910
had huge blizzards and then school would be canceled. So
385
00:20:28.750 --> 00:20:31.630
we could go outside and build snow forts. And that
386
00:20:31.910 --> 00:20:36.579
actually was very applicable to Because the first time I
387
00:20:36.619 --> 00:20:39.160
went to Antarctica, everybody goes down and you have to
388
00:20:39.200 --> 00:20:41.339
do survival training. And one of those things is to
389
00:20:41.400 --> 00:20:44.559
build something very similar to a snow fort so that
390
00:20:44.599 --> 00:20:46.400
if you ever get stuck out, you can build yourself
391
00:20:46.420 --> 00:20:48.660
a shelter and stay out of the wind.
392
00:20:49.059 --> 00:20:51.759
That's super cool. Well, thank you for taking the time
393
00:20:51.779 --> 00:20:54.079
to talk to us today. This is amazing. And I've
394
00:20:54.119 --> 00:20:54.819
learned so much.
395
00:20:55.309 --> 00:20:57.730
Thanks so much for talking with us, Dr.
396
00:20:57.769 --> 00:21:02.220
Mercer. It's been my pleasure, Julian. Thank you. And have
397
00:21:02.259 --> 00:21:04.319
a great day. Goodbye, everybody.
398
00:21:04.619 --> 00:21:06.119
Bye, Dr. Mercer.
399
00:21:06.140 --> 00:21:06.210
Bye.
400
00:21:06.920 --> 00:21:08.839
So that was so cool to be able to talk
401
00:21:08.859 --> 00:21:12.259
with someone who lived in Antarctica. Julian, do you think
402
00:21:12.579 --> 00:21:15.240
you could spend six months at a research station there?
403
00:21:15.859 --> 00:21:21.640
Um, probably not because it would be very cold.
404
00:21:22.230 --> 00:21:22.529
Yeah.
405
00:21:22.549 --> 00:21:25.869
And you're like, I don't want to bundle up. You know,
406
00:21:25.900 --> 00:21:28.029
we say here in Minnesota, there's no such thing as
407
00:21:28.089 --> 00:21:31.250
bad weather, just bad clothes. You just need the right
408
00:21:31.309 --> 00:21:34.569
clothes to get out there. So if you had to,
409
00:21:34.990 --> 00:21:37.190
what three things would you bring with you to keep
410
00:21:37.210 --> 00:21:38.289
yourself happy and healthy?
411
00:21:39.430 --> 00:21:45.150
A bag of snacks, a jacket, and a weather display
412
00:21:45.170 --> 00:21:49.519
that would tell me what the weather was and how
413
00:21:49.599 --> 00:21:50.410
cold it was.
414
00:21:51.099 --> 00:21:51.460
Smart.
415
00:21:52.250 --> 00:21:52.470
Dr.
416
00:21:52.509 --> 00:21:56.099
Mercer studied all sorts of things in Antarctica. Soil, the ozone.
417
00:21:56.359 --> 00:21:58.500
She met people who studied animals. There's so many different
418
00:21:58.539 --> 00:22:00.779
things to study there. So what would you want to
419
00:22:00.839 --> 00:22:03.740
study if you lived on Antarctica?
420
00:22:03.980 --> 00:22:07.200
I would want to study penguins.
421
00:22:07.720 --> 00:22:11.400
Nice. You can look at that observation tube, see what's
422
00:22:11.420 --> 00:22:14.579
down there. Would you like to swim with the penguins? Yeah.
423
00:22:14.599 --> 00:22:21.200
That would be pretty cool. One wild fact about Antarctica
424
00:22:21.319 --> 00:22:24.119
is that if you dig about 100 feet underground, you
425
00:22:24.160 --> 00:22:28.920
can find traces of a tropical rainforest. Wait, what? Yeah,
426
00:22:29.200 --> 00:22:32.259
scientists have drilled deep into the icy continent and found
427
00:22:32.359 --> 00:22:35.779
fossils of all kinds of plants and animals, and it
428
00:22:35.859 --> 00:22:40.480
gets weirder. Antarctica may be the reason there are kangaroos
429
00:22:40.759 --> 00:22:46.470
in Australia. Okay, I'm intrigued. Well, Julian, like Taylor Swift,
430
00:22:46.609 --> 00:22:48.730
Antarctica has had many different eras.
431
00:22:50.720 --> 00:22:56.390
Looking for an unforgettable vacation destination with awe-inspiring views, sock-sogging swamps,
432
00:22:56.430 --> 00:23:00.619
and towering trees that will make you shout, Timber! Then
433
00:23:00.660 --> 00:23:03.799
you need to visit Antarctica 90 million years ago.
434
00:23:03.819 --> 00:23:07.069
Antarctica 90 million years ago.
435
00:23:07.920 --> 00:23:10.880
Back before I went all Elsa and Frozen, Antarctica was
436
00:23:10.920 --> 00:23:15.809
a warm and wild paradise. For millions of years, palm trees, ferns,
437
00:23:16.009 --> 00:23:18.329
and other plants you'd see at a fancy beach resort
438
00:23:18.549 --> 00:23:22.049
were just hanging out, living their best life on Antarctica.
439
00:23:22.470 --> 00:23:26.019
That's because 90 million years ago, the Earth was much warmer.
440
00:23:26.039 --> 00:23:26.099
So?
441
00:23:28.210 --> 00:23:34.579
In fact, scientists think Antarctica was about as warm as Italy. Buongiorno!
442
00:23:35.170 --> 00:23:38.640
Plants and animals survived there, even though, like today, it
443
00:23:38.920 --> 00:23:41.720
was pretty dark for most of the winter. So go
444
00:23:41.740 --> 00:23:45.660
visit Antarctica 90 million years ago. What are you waiting for? Oh,
445
00:23:47.589 --> 00:23:51.750
you're waiting for time travel to exist. Yeah, us too.
446
00:23:52.109 --> 00:23:53.849
Yeah, where's time travel?
447
00:23:54.710 --> 00:23:56.970
Paid for by the Invent Time Travel Now advocacy group.
448
00:23:57.650 --> 00:24:00.789
Not responsible for butterfly effects, time dilation, or accidentally stepping
449
00:24:00.829 --> 00:24:02.589
on an animal and wiping out all of existence in
450
00:24:02.609 --> 00:24:03.029
the future.
451
00:24:05.529 --> 00:24:08.710
It wasn't just Antarctica that was warmer back then. The
452
00:24:08.789 --> 00:24:11.809
whole planet was toastier, too. So it was a very
453
00:24:11.950 --> 00:24:13.150
different time all around.
454
00:24:13.390 --> 00:24:18.130
Whoa, but back to the kangaroos. Were there kangaroos in Antarctica?
455
00:24:18.670 --> 00:24:20.569
I'm very invested in this.
456
00:24:20.990 --> 00:24:25.190
Well, 90 million years ago, it wasn't just warmer. The
457
00:24:25.230 --> 00:24:29.319
whole planet looked pretty different, too. That's because the colossal
458
00:24:29.480 --> 00:24:34.220
land masses we live on are always moving very slowly.
459
00:24:34.660 --> 00:24:37.269
We call these huge areas of land continents.
460
00:24:37.940 --> 00:24:40.829
I've heard of those. We live in a continent called
461
00:24:40.930 --> 00:24:41.910
North America.
462
00:24:42.349 --> 00:24:42.630
Yep.
463
00:24:43.109 --> 00:24:45.630
All of South America is a continent, too. Think of
464
00:24:45.690 --> 00:24:49.750
these as giant plates of rock that are always slowly
465
00:24:49.869 --> 00:24:51.690
grinding their way across the planet.
466
00:24:52.750 --> 00:24:53.210
Oh, yeah.
467
00:24:53.349 --> 00:24:55.230
That's called plate tectonics.
468
00:24:55.799 --> 00:24:58.039
It's the idea that all of the land we see
469
00:24:58.140 --> 00:25:01.400
is actually sitting on giant slabs of rock, and these
470
00:25:01.559 --> 00:25:05.500
giant rock plates very slowly slide around the globe. And
471
00:25:05.559 --> 00:25:09.240
many scientists think that around 90 million years ago, the
472
00:25:09.339 --> 00:25:14.289
giant rock slabs holding up South America, Antarctica, and Australia...
473
00:25:14.230 --> 00:25:15.289
were all connected.
474
00:25:15.309 --> 00:25:16.349
Whoa.
475
00:25:16.789 --> 00:25:21.170
Today, South America and Australia are very far apart and
476
00:25:21.230 --> 00:25:23.690
separated by lots of water.
477
00:25:23.710 --> 00:25:24.759
I know.
478
00:25:25.119 --> 00:25:28.299
But back then, they were pretty much holding hands. Scientists
479
00:25:28.339 --> 00:25:31.539
think at that time, animals would travel between South America
480
00:25:31.700 --> 00:25:35.359
and Australia. They'd use Antarctica kind of like a land bridge.
481
00:25:35.859 --> 00:25:39.140
The journey might have taken several generations, but that's one
482
00:25:39.200 --> 00:25:42.990
way creatures spread from east to west. Scientists think one
483
00:25:43.049 --> 00:25:45.509
type of animal that did this are marsupials.
484
00:25:45.970 --> 00:25:51.180
Like kangaroos and koalas and possums. They're animals that often
485
00:25:51.240 --> 00:25:54.160
have pouches for their babies to live in.
486
00:25:54.619 --> 00:25:55.160
Exactly.
487
00:25:55.380 --> 00:25:58.720
Scientists have found fossils that tell us marsupials first showed
488
00:25:58.779 --> 00:26:02.170
up in South America. But over time, they shuffled across
489
00:26:02.289 --> 00:26:05.670
Antarctica and ended up settling down in Australia too. Some
490
00:26:05.710 --> 00:26:10.849
of those evolved into kangaroos. So without Antarctica, no kangaroos.
491
00:26:12.150 --> 00:26:12.970
Crikey!
492
00:26:13.509 --> 00:26:16.579
So what happened? Why was it so warm back then
493
00:26:17.220 --> 00:26:18.680
and so cold there now?
494
00:26:19.279 --> 00:26:23.180
Excellent question. It's something scientists are still trying to figure out.
495
00:26:23.680 --> 00:26:26.059
They think back then there was a lot more carbon
496
00:26:26.099 --> 00:26:27.119
dioxide in the air.
497
00:26:27.500 --> 00:26:31.680
That's one of the greenhouse gases that's causing climate change today.
498
00:26:32.099 --> 00:26:36.380
It's released by burning fossil fuels like gasoline in our cars.
499
00:26:36.759 --> 00:26:37.240
Exactly.
500
00:26:37.259 --> 00:26:41.450
It can be released naturally too, like from volcanoes. Back then,
501
00:26:41.559 --> 00:26:43.599
there was a lot of that gas in the sky,
502
00:26:44.079 --> 00:26:46.819
way more than right now, and the planet got so
503
00:26:46.859 --> 00:26:49.920
warm that even at the poles, things were pretty toasty.
504
00:26:50.519 --> 00:26:54.160
Sea levels were probably 200 feet higher than they are now.
505
00:26:54.829 --> 00:26:58.269
Scientists aren't exactly sure what caused all that carbon dioxide
506
00:26:58.309 --> 00:26:59.630
gas to show up at that time.
507
00:27:00.089 --> 00:27:05.049
It wasn't from dinosaurs driving cars or running coal-burning factories?
508
00:27:05.569 --> 00:27:08.910
Nope, but we do know over time, the amount of
509
00:27:08.990 --> 00:27:12.930
carbon dioxide in the sky started dropping. The planet cooled down,
510
00:27:13.309 --> 00:27:17.289
and somewhere around 30 to 60 million years ago, ice
511
00:27:17.349 --> 00:27:19.039
caps formed in Antarctica.
512
00:27:19.410 --> 00:27:24.400
Then comes the ice, cold, and nice. But Molly, Antarctica
513
00:27:24.460 --> 00:27:26.519
is changing again, right?
514
00:27:27.160 --> 00:27:31.460
Yes. That chilly wonderland is heating up again. But this time,
515
00:27:31.579 --> 00:27:34.359
we know the cause. Humans are releasing a lot of
516
00:27:34.400 --> 00:27:37.369
greenhouse gases into the air, and just like before, they're
517
00:27:37.400 --> 00:27:40.900
warming the planet. But it's happening a lot quicker than
518
00:27:40.960 --> 00:27:43.980
last time, which makes it really hard for the plants
519
00:27:44.039 --> 00:27:45.900
and animals alive right now to adjust.
520
00:27:46.279 --> 00:27:49.539
Yeah, and as things warm up, the ice melts.
521
00:27:50.279 --> 00:27:53.900
Over the last 20 years, on average, Antarctica lost about
522
00:27:53.900 --> 00:27:56.009
145 gigatons of ice a year. How much is that?
523
00:27:59.319 --> 00:28:03.579
Molly, I happen to be a gigaton expert. One gigaton
524
00:28:03.619 --> 00:28:07.809
of ice is enough to cover New York City's Central
525
00:28:07.890 --> 00:28:11.250
Park in a block of ice that's 10 stories tall.
526
00:28:11.650 --> 00:28:16.470
Now imagine 145 of these huge blocks of ice. That's
527
00:28:16.470 --> 00:28:18.539
145 gigatons.
528
00:28:18.950 --> 00:28:21.819
That is a lot of ice. And that's how much
529
00:28:21.859 --> 00:28:25.420
of Antarctica's ice is melting every year. So things are
530
00:28:25.500 --> 00:28:25.980
changing fast.
531
00:28:28.250 --> 00:28:32.089
Looking for an unforgettable vacation destination that's a crucial part
532
00:28:32.109 --> 00:28:35.430
of our planet's climate? A place with so much ice
533
00:28:35.670 --> 00:28:39.099
that if it all melted, sea levels would rise dramatically?
534
00:28:39.119 --> 00:28:42.319
A place that's home to unique species like penguins and
535
00:28:42.359 --> 00:28:47.509
leopard seals and midges? Visit Antarctica. The ice caps there
536
00:28:47.569 --> 00:28:51.369
are both magnificent and super important. So let's keep them
537
00:28:51.450 --> 00:28:55.450
nice and icy by cutting down on fossil fuels, by
538
00:28:55.509 --> 00:28:58.910
turning to renewable sources of energy like solar or wind,
539
00:28:59.390 --> 00:29:01.930
and by asking our leaders to do everything they can
540
00:29:01.990 --> 00:29:03.450
to fight climate change.
541
00:29:03.470 --> 00:29:04.630
Fight it now.
542
00:29:05.440 --> 00:29:10.059
After all, what's good for Antarctica is good for the planet. Antarctica,
543
00:29:10.319 --> 00:29:13.059
a place too cold for most people, but just right
544
00:29:13.339 --> 00:29:13.900
for the Earth.
545
00:29:14.500 --> 00:29:17.089
Paid for by the Midges of Antarctica. We're tiny bugs
546
00:29:17.130 --> 00:29:19.720
with big dreams of curbing climate change. If you visit,
547
00:29:19.900 --> 00:29:20.680
please don't step on us.
548
00:29:27.599 --> 00:29:31.140
Antarctica is a vast and wild place, home to super
549
00:29:31.180 --> 00:29:34.529
thick ice sheets, volcanoes, and some of the coldest temperatures
550
00:29:34.710 --> 00:29:35.029
on Earth.
551
00:29:35.589 --> 00:29:39.450
All kinds of creatures live there, including a super tough
552
00:29:39.769 --> 00:29:42.680
little insect called the Antarctic midge.
553
00:29:43.299 --> 00:29:46.559
It's really cold there now, but 90 million years ago,
554
00:29:46.779 --> 00:29:50.190
Antarctica was a warm and tropical place covered in palm
555
00:29:50.250 --> 00:29:51.390
trees and ferns.
556
00:29:52.009 --> 00:29:55.390
And it's getting warm again because of climate change, and
557
00:29:55.450 --> 00:29:58.269
that's causing ice in Antarctica to melt.
558
00:29:58.950 --> 00:30:01.089
That's it for this episode of Brains On.
559
00:30:01.990 --> 00:30:06.740
This episode was written by Shayla Farzan and Sandin Totten
560
00:30:07.039 --> 00:30:12.380
and edited by Molly Loom and produced by Rosie DuPont.
561
00:30:12.900 --> 00:30:16.339
Backtracking by Nico Gonzalez-Whistler.
562
00:30:16.740 --> 00:30:19.500
We had engineering help from Derek Ramirez, Dave Walton, and
563
00:30:19.539 --> 00:30:22.480
Pam Holland with sound design by Rachel Breeze, original theme
564
00:30:22.500 --> 00:30:25.609
music by Mark Sanchez. Beth Perlman is our executive producer.
565
00:30:25.940 --> 00:30:28.309
And the executives in charge of APM Studios are Chandra
566
00:30:28.329 --> 00:30:32.670
Kavati and Joanne Griffith. Special thanks to Jennifer Mercer, Cassandra Eichner,
567
00:30:32.930 --> 00:30:36.369
Rebecca Erie, and Jonathan Irish. We had production help from
568
00:30:36.410 --> 00:30:39.190
the rest of the Brains on Universe team. Anna Goldfield,
569
00:30:39.410 --> 00:30:43.400
Ruby Guthrie, Lauren Humpert, Joshua Ray, Mark Sanchez, Charlotte Traver,
570
00:30:43.559 --> 00:30:45.460
Anna Weigel, and Adarone Woldeslassie.
571
00:30:45.849 --> 00:30:49.440
Brains On is a non-profit public radio program.
572
00:30:49.680 --> 00:30:51.960
There are lots of ways to support the show. Subscribe
573
00:30:52.000 --> 00:30:54.440
to Brains On Universe on YouTube, where you can watch
574
00:30:54.599 --> 00:30:58.000
animated versions of some of your favorite episodes. Or head
575
00:30:58.019 --> 00:30:59.460
to BrainsOn.org.
576
00:30:59.759 --> 00:31:03.289
While you're there, you can send us mystery sounds, drawings,
577
00:31:03.589 --> 00:31:04.670
and questions!
578
00:31:05.849 --> 00:31:09.109
Okay, Julian, are you ready to hear the mystery sound again?
579
00:31:09.470 --> 00:31:09.769
Yes.
580
00:31:10.410 --> 00:31:24.279
Wonderful. Here it is. Okay, what do you think? Last
581
00:31:24.299 --> 00:31:26.400
time you thought it was a saw. Do you have
582
00:31:26.480 --> 00:31:27.000
new thoughts?
583
00:31:28.480 --> 00:31:30.119
I still think it's a saw.
584
00:31:30.589 --> 00:31:33.190
Okay, I'm going to say I think it's a saw too,
585
00:31:33.549 --> 00:31:38.289
but it sounds like a tiny saw. So maybe the
586
00:31:38.329 --> 00:31:42.130
cats and dogs that listen to Brains On are using
587
00:31:42.150 --> 00:31:46.339
their tiny saws to build a parade float dedicated to
588
00:31:46.359 --> 00:31:47.339
Brains On. What do you think?
589
00:31:49.099 --> 00:31:49.960
I think so.
590
00:31:50.579 --> 00:31:53.980
Okay, great. You ready to hear the answer?
591
00:31:54.460 --> 00:31:54.740
Yes.
592
00:31:55.079 --> 00:31:56.140
Okay, let's hear it.
593
00:31:56.619 --> 00:31:59.670
Hi, my name is Luca and I live in Switzerland.
594
00:31:59.970 --> 00:32:02.569
That was the sound of my mother twisting her feet
595
00:32:03.089 --> 00:32:06.509
while wearing sneakers on the wet floor of a parking garage.
596
00:32:07.329 --> 00:32:11.589
Oh my goodness. Oh my gosh. We were not close.
597
00:32:11.869 --> 00:32:12.029
No.
598
00:32:15.480 --> 00:32:18.859
Twisting wet sneakers on the floor of a parking garage.
599
00:32:19.299 --> 00:32:22.069
That is a really tricky mystery sound. Good job, Luca.
600
00:32:22.170 --> 00:32:36.460
You stumped us. Completely. Now it's time for the Brain's
601
00:32:36.539 --> 00:32:38.680
Honor Roll. These are the kids who keep the show
602
00:32:38.700 --> 00:32:41.799
going with their questions, ideas, mystery sounds, drawings, and high fives.
603
00:32:42.819 --> 00:32:45.900
Ezra from Charlotte, North Carolina. Eitan from Jerusalem. Daniel from
604
00:32:45.920 --> 00:32:49.049
Clifton Park, New York. Domingo and Javier from Reston, Virginia.
605
00:32:49.369 --> 00:32:52.890
Xander from Kingsburg, California. Maya from Israel. Jane from Pennsylvania.
606
00:32:53.230 --> 00:32:57.650
Samira from the Netherlands. Callie from Briar, Washington. Aria from Windsor, Ontario.
607
00:32:57.730 --> 00:33:01.759
Gio from Waterloo, Ontario. Kevin from Canaan, Connecticut. Owen from Chicago.
608
00:33:01.859 --> 00:33:05.579
Jace from Lutz, Florida. Ben from Sydney, Australia. Raj from Annapolis, Maryland.
609
00:33:05.599 --> 00:33:08.259
Graham from Dallas, Texas. Mark from Columbus, Ohio. Alex from
610
00:33:08.299 --> 00:33:12.519
Los Altos, California. Eliza from Budapest. August from Cary, North Carolina.
611
00:33:12.599 --> 00:33:16.980
Logan from Vallejo, California. Simona from Vancouver. Arella from Bothell, Washington.
612
00:33:17.059 --> 00:33:20.920
Nemo from Woodbury, Minnesota. London from Marysville, Ohio. Simon from Virginia.
613
00:33:20.980 --> 00:33:24.259
Jack from Missoula, Montana. Matthias from Carmel, California. Josie from
614
00:33:24.319 --> 00:33:27.420
Port Angeles, Washington. Colette from Portland, Oregon. Ivy from Denver.
615
00:33:27.440 --> 00:33:30.890
Melody from Mississauga, Ontario. Sabella from Austin, Texas. Arthur and
616
00:33:30.950 --> 00:33:35.210
Alice from Irvine, California. Ellie from Calgary, Alberta. Marie from Aberdeen, UK.
617
00:33:35.289 --> 00:33:39.339
Miles from Tucson, Arizona. Abram, Liam, and Johannes from Los Alamitos, California.
618
00:33:39.740 --> 00:33:43.440
Delilah from Phoenix. Charlie from Red Rock, Ontario. Jay from Orange, California.
619
00:33:43.480 --> 00:33:47.240
Jasper from Burbank, California. Leo from Seattle. Navi from Hillsborough, Oregon.
620
00:33:47.700 --> 00:33:51.250
James from Harpenden, England, Galilee and Eden from Pleasant Hill, California,
621
00:33:51.710 --> 00:33:55.309
Ade and Amal from Somerville, Massachusetts, Leo and Miles from Goshen, Ohio,
622
00:33:55.670 --> 00:33:58.990
Lyra from Portland, Oregon, Everett and Amelia from Bakersfield, California,
623
00:33:59.349 --> 00:34:02.569
Cooper from Boise, Idaho, Rain from Bluffdale, Utah, Greta and
624
00:34:02.630 --> 00:34:06.859
Arthur from Dallas, Dakota from Ambler, Pennsylvania, Caleb from Drayton Valley, Canada,
625
00:34:07.160 --> 00:34:11.059
Nora from Victoria, British Columbia, Clara, Olivia, Sophie from Grand Prairie, Alberta,
626
00:34:11.440 --> 00:34:15.340
Presley from Joplin, Missouri, Addison from Bloomington, Illinois, Jaron from Oakland, California,
627
00:34:15.380 --> 00:34:25.610
and Penelope from Aliso, Vallejo, California. We'll be back next
628
00:34:25.630 --> 00:34:28.110
week with an episode all about building a house on
629
00:34:28.150 --> 00:34:28.590
the moon.
630
00:34:28.889 --> 00:34:30.250
Thanks for listening.
