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This is SpaceTime series 29,
episode 95, for broadcast on the
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10th of August 2026. Coming up
on SpaceTime, spectacular
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vortices discovered on the Sun's
surface, the event horizon of
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00:00:13,880 --> 00:00:18,530
merging black holes seen for the
very first time, and Starship
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00:00:18,530 --> 00:00:21,530
recovery efforts now underway
off the Western Australian
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coastline. All that and more
coming up on SpaceTime.
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Welcome to space time with
Stuart Garry.
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Astronomers have for the first
time observed swirling
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whirlpool-like vortices deep
inside the Sun's photosphere, it
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's visible surface. The
structures called Kelvin Helmont
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's instabilities, which were
detected on the edges of solar
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magnetic regions, are a major
step forward in science's
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understanding of the dynamics
and evolution of solar and
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stellar plasma.
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The findings reported in the
journal Nature are based on data
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collected by the world's largest
solar telescope, the National
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Science Foundation's Daniel K.
Inoe Solar Telescope on the
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Hawaiian island of Maui.
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The new time lapse video and
images reveal a solar landscape
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unlike anything ever seen
before, and it's allowed the
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first ever confirmation of
Kelvin Helmholt's instabilities,
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a phenomenon that's long been
predicted by theory but couldn't
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be proven until now. Kelvin
Helmholt's instabilities are an
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effect caused by fluid motion.
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It occurs when two fluids slide
past each other at different
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velocities, creating a sort of
sheer effect at the interface,
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causing small disturbances to
grow into striking wave-like or
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spiraling vortices, looking like
breaking ocean waves.
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Since its original formulation
by Lord Kelvin, Hermann von
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Helmholtz around 1870,
Kelvin-Helmholtz's instabilities
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have been observed and
investigated across many areas
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of physics, including fluid
dynamics, meteorology,
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oceanography, heliophysics, and
astrophysics.
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Instabilities observed at a
variety of scales, from small
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lake and ocean waves in windy
conditions to cloud formations
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on Earth, to the atmosphere of
gas giants like Saturn and
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Jupiter, and the interaction of
the solar wind, the constant
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stream of charged particles
flowing out from the Sun with
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planetary magnetospheres within
our own solar system.
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One of the study's authors, the
deputy director of the National
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Solar Observatory, David
Bobholtz, says the discovery of
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Kelvin Helmholtz's instability
in the solar photosphere, backed
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up by numerical computer
simulation analysis, represents
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a major scientific breakthrough.
The swirling vortices of
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magnetic solar plasma have
become an area of increased
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interest for solar physicists.
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They could be an effective
source of free magnetic energy
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which powers major solar
activity, including explosive
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events from tiny nano flares to
massive solar flares, jets and
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coronal mass ejections. And of
course these are the main
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contributors to space weather,
which can severely disrupt our
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modern technological
infrastructure, including power
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grids, satellites, GPS
navigation systems, and global
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communications.
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The leading theory on how the
Sun builds up magnetic energy is
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known as flux braiding. As
magnetic field lines twist
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around each other like braiding
hair, they create a tense,
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unstable setup.
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When that tension gets rapidly
released, the tangled magnetic
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field lines snap across each
other and then reconnect in new
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shapes through magnetic
reconnection. And this sudden
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rearrangement releases a massive
burst of energy as the system
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settles back down into a calmer,
lower energy state.
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What scientists don't fully
understand yet is what causes
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the magnetic twisting and
braiding to happen in the first
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place, and that's where this new
discovery comes in. Those small
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swirling patterns from the
Kelvin Helmholtz instability
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might be the answer, or at least
part of it.
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Since the swirls seem to be
happening consistently and
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everywhere on the Sun's surface
with the magnetic field strong
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enough, they could be the
everyday engine that keeps
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twisting the magnetic field
lines and consequently setting
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the whole process in motion. So
the authors analyzed and
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compared the high resolution IOA
observations with computer
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simulations of the solar
photosphere created using highly
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specialized codes.
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These computer simulations are
built using some basic physics
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equations that describe what's
happening in the Sun's
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atmosphere, and they're an
important tool in the
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interpretation of scientific
data, allowing astronomers to
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see things that are hard or even
impossible to measure directly
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by observation, thereby giving
them a real insight into
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processes that would otherwise
be hidden.
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And the authors found literally
dozens of vortex-like structures
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along the edges of magnetic
areas, both in the observations
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and in the simulations, which
were both strikingly similar in
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characteristics and dynamics.
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For example, the average space
distance between vortices, known
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as the instability wavelength,
ranged from between 50 and 65
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kilometers in both cases. The
study shows that our Sun's
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consistently bubbling surface or
granulation interacts with
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magnetic structures to create
areas where neighboring layers
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move at different speeds,
providing the conditions
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necessary to trigger Kelvin
Helmholtz's instability.
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The National Solar Observatory's
chief technologist Thomas Ramil
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says Kelvin Helmholtz's
instability is a likely
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mechanism that contributes to
the heating of the Sun's outer
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atmosphere, the corona, which is
millions of degrees hotter than
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the Sun's surface, and that's
been one of the biggest
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mysteries in solar physics.
After all, things are supposed
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to get cooler the further away
you are from the heat source.
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The data also shows that the
swirling effect efficiently
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mixes magnetized and
non-magnetized plasma on the Sun
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's surface, thereby enhancing
the diffusion of magnetic fields
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throughout the solar atmosphere.
The diffusion resulting from
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Kelvin Helmholtz instability is
a key factor scientists use when
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building models to predict how
magnetic activity changes over
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time, not just for our Sun, but
for other stars as well.
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The Sun's magnetic field is
generated by a dynamo process
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which acts sort of like giant
cosmic engines, turning the star
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's rotational energy into
magnetic fields. However,
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because the solar magnetic cycle
is only 11 years long, a
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remarkably rapid time scale in
cosmic terms, the generated
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magnetic flux must dissipate
efficiently, and current models
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struggle to explain this rapid
diffusion.
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And that's where Kelvin Helmholt
's instabilities come in. They
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could act as a key source for
this missing magnetic diffusion.
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This is SpaceTime. Still to
come, the event horizon of
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merging black holes seen for the
first time, and Starship
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recovery efforts now underway
off the Western Australian
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coast. All that and more still
to come on SpaceTime.
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Astronomers have for the first
time detected gravitational
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waves from the event horizon
during the actual merger of two
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black holes. The observations
reported in the journal Nature
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are opening a new window into
one of the most fascinating and
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least understood processes in
science. It's where quantum
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physics and theories of general
relativity intersect.
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A black hole is a point of
infinite density in zero volume,
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singularity. They're called
black holes because nothing, not
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even light, can escape its pull
if it gets too close.
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That's because the escape
velocity from a black hole is
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greater than the speed of light,
and the event horizon is that
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point of no return surrounding a
black hole beyond which matter
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and energy can no longer escape
the singularity's gravitational
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pull, disappearing forever from
our universe.
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They say in space no one can
hear you scream, but it seems
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that you really can hear the
sound of a crash when two black
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holes collide. Using the loudest
gravitational waves ever heard,
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scientists have for the first
time been able to witness the
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previously elusive event horizon
at the actual moment of
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collision right before all the
light, sound, and matter are
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swallowed for eternity by the
newly formed black hole.
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The authors measured this last
sound, a gravitational wave,
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which the black holes made when
they crashed. Hidden within that
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signal is a small component
called direct waves, which had
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not previously been well
understood, and this allowed the
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authors to measure two
fundamental black hole
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properties from close to the
event horizon, rotational
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frequency and surface gravity.
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The scientists studied the
gravitational wave signal coming
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from an event called GW 250114,
which was recorded last year by
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the LIGO Laser Interferometer
Gravitational Wave Observatories
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in Louisiana and Washington
state. The GW 250114 black hole
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merger was the loudest binary
black hole signal ever observed,
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and some three times louder than
the first gravitational wave
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signal detected over a decade
ago.
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One of the study's authors,
Professor Robert Ward from the
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Australian National University,
says these measurements Mark a
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first step towards future tests
of general relativity using
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direct waves.
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It means astrophysicists will be
able to study the strength of
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extreme gravity at the black
hole's event horizon, as well as
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phenomena like frame dragging,
where black holes quite
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literally are dragging the very
fabric of space and time, in the
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process, creating an environment
where nothing is able to remain
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stationary relative to a distant
observer.
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When two black holes are
merging, they, they start off
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far away from each other, and so
they gradually spiral into each
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other, getting closer and
closer, and then at some final
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point, they crash into each
other.
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And they make a heavier black
hole at the end of this. And
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this is what we see with
gravitational waves, which we
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first saw just over 10 years
ago, and we've been able to view
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this process and we've seen
hundreds and hundreds of black
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holes doing this now.
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The merger of black holes and
gravitational waves is
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fascinating. Sounds like a
chirp, just increasing in
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frequency in gravitational
waves, at least.
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Sounds exactly like a bird
chirp. Exactly. That is because
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the two black holes getting
closer to each other, so they
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move faster. And when they move
faster, the wave carries higher
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frequency. That's why you hear
like when we see the waveform,
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the frequency gets higher when
they get closer and they
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eventually merge.
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And you saw another wave within
that structure.
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What we did is we decoded a
piece of the signal which was
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inside of these observations
that we've been making that no
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one was previously able to
interpret, and we've brought in
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a new way to be able to clean
out all the other stuff, which
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is hiding this piece of the
signal.
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And so then we can isolate this
part of the signal, which is
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very interesting, which. Tells
us a lot about the physics near
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the black hole horizon and
allows us to test what's going
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on in this region of space.
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And this was the direct waves.
Yeah, exactly right. And what
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does that tell you?
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Well, that, that is very
interesting. You know, black
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hole event horizon, that is
usually referred as a point of
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no return. Nothing can escape,
not even light, but this direct
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wave component actually brings
us some inklings. The remnant
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black hole horizon leaves in
the, in the gravitational wave
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signal.
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That actually allow us to test
the black hole horizon, its
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frequency and surface gravity.
In other words, like how fast
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the horizon is spinning and how
strong the gravity is near the
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black hole horizon. That is the
key information we can decode
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out of this direct wave
component.
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And what does that tell you
about the physics of the merger
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itself? Are the vet horizons
moving in the same direction? Is
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the black hole spinning? Is the
singularity spinning in the same
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direction, or are they in
opposite directions? Can they be
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in any way at all? Is there some
sort of synchronicity going on
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just prior to the merger?
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This tells us a lot about the
remnant black hole, so the black
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hole which is formed at the end
of everything, and this is also
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why this direct wave is so
powerful, because you're right,
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before the merger, there's all
of this complicated physics
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going on, you know, are they
spinning in the same direction?
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How heavy are they one compared
to the other, etc.
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There's a lot of different
parameters, whereas this direct
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wave is actually extremely
simple in the sense of it only
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depends on these. Two very
simple properties. And so this
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is also what makes the direct
wave so interesting in that it
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reveals a lot of insight into
the remnant black holes, horizon
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physics.
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Also kind of interesting because
when the final black hole is
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formed, it's highly spinning,
right, because the two black
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holes form one and it's spinning
really fast. It drags the
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space-time around it. So we call
it a frame dragging, then kind
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of it removes some of the
history, like complicated
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00:12:55,916 --> 00:12:57,955
history before the black hole
merge.
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And when it gets to the final
stage, it sort of just gets
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dragged by the final black hole.
And that's why the direct wave
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piece is so clean and just to
carry the information of the
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final black hole. Will this
help.
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With studies of topology in
black holes and trying to
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understand Hawking radiation?
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Oh, that's a very interesting
question. I think this is the
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start of being able to analyze
and study, like you said, the
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topology and the space-time
physics with this part of the
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signal. We hope eventually.
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It may provide insights into all
of that, but that's still kind
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of, we're still just opening
this door to trying to
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understand how to use it. So we
can't give a conclusive answer
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yet about what insight it may
bring in the future.
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I think lots of work still needs
to be done to better understand
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this kind of information and
maybe possibly open some new
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avenues to study black hole
horizon physics, and like
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fundamental physics or.
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General relativity, Hawking
radiation, yeah.
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Very little about black holes
other than their mass and their
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rotation. What can we still
learn from them?
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So one thing I guess is, at the
end of the day, black holes are
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remarkably simple objects. Like
you said, they only have their
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mass, their rotational
frequency, and theoretically
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00:14:14,564 --> 00:14:18,164
they they could have charge, but
for any real black hole, it's
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extremely unlikely they have
charge.
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So even though we know so
little, you know, you say we
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00:14:22,804 --> 00:14:25,523
know relatively little about it,
that's because there's not that
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much to understand about the
black hole itself.
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But then we're also incredibly
interested in probing the
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physics just outside the black
hole, the physics near the
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horizon, and this is where a lot
of the interesting things like
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Hawking radiation happen, where
you have the interaction, might
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have the interaction between
general relativity and quantum
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mechanics, and so probing this
region just outside the black
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hole horizon is what we hope to
be able to contribute something
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to with this direct wave signal.
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Now this particular black hole
merger you were looking at, GW.
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250114. How far away was it?
What do we know about its
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location in space.
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And I think it's about 400 meg
per second away from us, roughly
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1.3 billion light years.
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Do we know about the mass of the
progenitor black holes.
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Yeah, so they are formed by
approximately 2 black holes,
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which were each about 30 solar
masses, 30 times the mass of the
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Sun. And one interesting thing
about GW 250114 is it's a Mark.
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00:15:26,624 --> 00:15:29,973
Standard system, that's to say,
we have seen lots of other
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00:15:29,973 --> 00:15:32,914
systems with very similar
properties, similar initial
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00:15:32,914 --> 00:15:36,254
masses, similar initial spins,
mass ratios, etc.
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00:15:36,414 --> 00:15:40,494
But the uniquely interesting
thing about GW 250114 is that it
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00:15:40,494 --> 00:15:44,674
is relatively closer, and so we
can see this extremely loudly,
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00:15:44,684 --> 00:15:48,133
and so we are able to use this
to do lots of tests for physics.
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00:15:48,374 --> 00:15:52,593
The remarkably loud loudness of
the signal is because we have
285
00:15:52,593 --> 00:15:56,666
our detector way better than 10
years ago. A lot of work getting
286
00:15:56,666 --> 00:16:00,666
into upgrading these extremely
sensitive detectors over these
287
00:16:00,666 --> 00:16:04,906
10 years. So almost a similar
signal as 10 years ago actually
288
00:16:04,906 --> 00:16:08,745
gives us a much, much cleaner
signal in our detector, and we
289
00:16:08,745 --> 00:16:11,346
are able to carry out these
detailed studies.
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00:16:12,015 --> 00:16:14,306
Of course one of the big
problems about gravitational
291
00:16:14,306 --> 00:16:17,625
wave detectors is that there
aren't many of them, so working
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00:16:17,625 --> 00:16:20,945
on exactly where an object is in
space is still difficult. We've
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00:16:20,945 --> 00:16:23,945
got the two in the United States
on either side of the country.
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00:16:24,026 --> 00:16:24,265
You've got.
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00:16:24,518 --> 00:16:28,478
One in Europe and one in Japan
and others are being built, but
296
00:16:28,478 --> 00:16:30,997
we were offered one in Australia
at some stage, but the
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00:16:30,997 --> 00:16:33,638
government of the day turned it
down, which is very sad. But we
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00:16:33,638 --> 00:16:36,437
need more gravitational wave
detectors to get a better
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00:16:36,437 --> 00:16:37,757
picture of what's happening in
space.
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00:16:37,918 --> 00:16:41,838
Yeah, for sure. And actually a
group of people in Australia are
301
00:16:41,838 --> 00:16:45,297
working really hard to propose a
gravitational wave detector in
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00:16:45,297 --> 00:16:49,257
the future in Australia and a
much better one for better study
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00:16:49,257 --> 00:16:51,107
in getting deeper into the
universe.
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00:16:51,237 --> 00:16:52,038
This is Ausgrave.
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00:16:52,117 --> 00:16:56,169
Ausgrave. Yeah, including
everyone working in Agraph and
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00:16:56,169 --> 00:16:57,349
the bigger community.
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00:16:57,570 --> 00:17:00,049
Oh, fingers crossed with that.
How advanced are those
308
00:17:00,049 --> 00:17:00,500
proposals?
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00:17:00,609 --> 00:17:03,289
I guess that's still at an early
stage because, you know,
310
00:17:03,650 --> 00:17:06,579
internationally, there are
proposals for the next
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00:17:06,579 --> 00:17:09,489
generation gravitational wave
detectors. They will be way more
312
00:17:09,489 --> 00:17:11,869
sensitive than what we have
right now.
313
00:17:11,890 --> 00:17:15,689
And there are proposals in the
US, in Europe, and in other
314
00:17:15,689 --> 00:17:19,189
countries as well, and Australia
is also working on the proposal
315
00:17:19,189 --> 00:17:23,381
and looking into pathways to get
to future. Better, more
316
00:17:23,381 --> 00:17:26,161
sensitive gravitational wave
detectors which can bring us
317
00:17:26,161 --> 00:17:27,702
more fascinating signs.
318
00:17:27,862 --> 00:17:31,381
So that would maybe allow us not
just to observe in gravitational
319
00:17:31,381 --> 00:17:34,421
waves black holes and neutron
star mergers and things like
320
00:17:34,421 --> 00:17:37,342
that, but maybe even the merger
of supermassive black holes. Is
321
00:17:37,342 --> 00:17:38,482
that what we're talking about?
322
00:17:39,222 --> 00:17:43,342
That will be a different
frequency range that will be
323
00:17:43,342 --> 00:17:47,982
something we can observe with
future space-based gravitational
324
00:17:47,982 --> 00:17:51,021
wave detectors. That's LISA,
right? And actually, in terms
325
00:17:51,021 --> 00:17:51,462
of.
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00:17:51,634 --> 00:17:54,874
Massive black hole, there's
another way to study them, which
327
00:17:54,874 --> 00:17:58,813
is already happening with a set
of pulsars, which is called
328
00:17:58,813 --> 00:18:02,683
pulsar timing array. They are
using these pulsars, the
329
00:18:02,683 --> 00:18:07,614
astrophysical object, as like a
telescope in the sky to study
330
00:18:07,784 --> 00:18:10,073
the background of supermassive
black holes.
331
00:18:10,193 --> 00:18:13,713
So when the pulsar signals get
out askew, then you know there's
332
00:18:13,713 --> 00:18:16,284
a black hole merge, supermassive
black hole merger going on.
333
00:18:16,394 --> 00:18:20,274
Yeah, this is like a pulsar have
really good timing and their
334
00:18:20,274 --> 00:18:24,446
signal. Arrive on Earth should
be super accurate, but if the
335
00:18:24,446 --> 00:18:28,286
space-time is sort of changed by
the passing by gravitational
336
00:18:28,286 --> 00:18:31,845
wave, the gravitational wave
background, then the pulsar
337
00:18:31,845 --> 00:18:33,166
signals arrived.
338
00:18:33,245 --> 00:18:37,926
The time of those pulsar signals
will be slightly changed
339
00:18:37,926 --> 00:18:41,125
depending on which direction it
comes from. So we can use that
340
00:18:41,125 --> 00:18:45,526
kind of information to infer the
space-time geometry in the
341
00:18:45,526 --> 00:18:45,965
universe.
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00:18:46,086 --> 00:18:49,316
That's Professor Robert Ward
from the Australian National
343
00:18:49,316 --> 00:18:54,060
University. And this is space
time. Still to come, SpaceX
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00:18:54,060 --> 00:18:56,890
Starship recovery efforts now
underway off the Western
345
00:18:56,890 --> 00:19:00,060
Australian coast and later in
the Science Report, reshaping
346
00:19:00,060 --> 00:19:02,969
science's understanding of the
evolution of mammals during the
347
00:19:02,969 --> 00:19:07,619
age of dinosaurs. All that and
more still to come on SpaceTime.
348
00:19:23,599 --> 00:19:27,729
SpaceX are towing their Test 13
Starship prototype back to shore
349
00:19:27,729 --> 00:19:31,359
after it survived its Indian
Ocean splashdown off the Western
350
00:19:31,359 --> 00:19:34,530
Australian coast. While other
test flights have succeeded in
351
00:19:34,530 --> 00:19:38,079
achieving a soft landing in the
sea, Ship 40 as the spacecraft's
352
00:19:38,079 --> 00:19:41,540
known, is the first not to
explode and sink. To be honest,
353
00:19:41,739 --> 00:19:44,329
SpaceX weren't expecting to
recover Ship 40.
354
00:19:45,180 --> 00:19:47,939
The Starship had just completed
a successful test flight,
355
00:19:48,010 --> 00:19:51,270
launching on its super heavy
rocket booster from SpaceX's
356
00:19:51,270 --> 00:19:54,500
starbase on the Texas Gulf
Coast, completing a textbook
357
00:19:54,500 --> 00:19:57,780
stage separation and then ascent
to its planned suborbital
358
00:19:57,780 --> 00:20:01,650
altitude. Once in space, it
successfully deployed 20
359
00:20:01,650 --> 00:20:03,410
Starlinky 3 satellites.
360
00:20:03,500 --> 00:20:06,420
They're the new ones which are
now being released. It also
361
00:20:06,420 --> 00:20:09,849
undertook a test restart of one
of its surface Raptor engines,
362
00:20:10,260 --> 00:20:13,489
and that was followed by a
flawless atmospheric re-entry to
363
00:20:13,489 --> 00:20:17,479
Sandton Landing. Now usually the
heat of re-entry, the impact of
364
00:20:17,479 --> 00:20:20,310
the splashdown, and the
remaining fuel inside the
365
00:20:20,310 --> 00:20:23,369
spaceship combine to trigger an
explosion, resulting in the
366
00:20:23,369 --> 00:20:25,300
Starship breaking up and
sinking.
367
00:20:25,680 --> 00:20:29,150
But this time, for the first
time, Starship simply tumbled
368
00:20:29,150 --> 00:20:33,280
over into the water and floated,
bobbing up and down, and that's
369
00:20:33,280 --> 00:20:36,079
provided SpaceX with an
unexpected opportunity.
370
00:20:36,479 --> 00:20:40,050
The SpaceX recovery ship Go
Australis monitored the splashed
371
00:20:40,050 --> 00:20:43,119
out from a safe distance and has
remained nearby while mission
372
00:20:43,119 --> 00:20:46,770
managers were working out how to
recover the spacecraft. SpaceX
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00:20:46,770 --> 00:20:50,729
boss Elon Musk says a pair of
Norwegian tugboats named Normand
374
00:20:50,729 --> 00:20:54,089
Ranger and Skimmer Tide were
then contracted to carry out a
375
00:20:54,089 --> 00:20:55,150
recovery effort.
376
00:20:55,709 --> 00:20:58,589
The latest satellite images show
what looks like a tow line
377
00:20:58,589 --> 00:21:01,810
attached to the Starship, and
ship tracking data from marine
378
00:21:01,810 --> 00:21:05,189
traffic shows the two tugs
moving at about 1 nautical mile
379
00:21:05,189 --> 00:21:08,310
per hour and broadcasting the
fact that they had a restricted
380
00:21:08,310 --> 00:21:10,949
level of maneuverability,
inferring that they were towing
381
00:21:10,949 --> 00:21:11,250
something.
382
00:21:12,329 --> 00:21:15,849
The recovery of Starship will
provide SpaceX with a treasure
383
00:21:15,849 --> 00:21:18,810
trove of invaluable data about
the test which they weren't
384
00:21:18,810 --> 00:21:21,849
expecting to get. Previously,
they've always had to rely on
385
00:21:21,849 --> 00:21:24,530
visual images and onboard
sensors during what were
386
00:21:24,530 --> 00:21:25,989
sacrificial missions.
387
00:21:26,329 --> 00:21:29,449
So to actually have a complete
spacecraft to study will greatly
388
00:21:29,449 --> 00:21:34,109
advance the test program. Musk
says Starship Test Flight 13 was
389
00:21:34,109 --> 00:21:37,510
so promising that SpaceX might
now attempt to catch Starship
390
00:21:37,510 --> 00:21:40,569
back on dry land after the next
test flight, which is likely to
391
00:21:40,569 --> 00:21:42,910
take place later this month or
early next.
392
00:21:43,829 --> 00:21:46,890
Meanwhile, NASA are monitoring
the whole operation closely as
393
00:21:46,890 --> 00:21:50,270
both a version of Starship and
Blue Origin's Blue Moon lander
394
00:21:50,270 --> 00:21:53,469
will be used to shuttle crews
and supplies from lunar orbit
395
00:21:53,469 --> 00:21:56,430
down to the moon's surface and
back again with missions due to
396
00:21:56,430 --> 00:21:59,329
commence with Artemis 4 in 2028.
397
00:21:59,910 --> 00:22:03,070
To meet that deadline, Starship
needs to be ready for next year
398
00:22:03,070 --> 00:22:06,760
's Artemis 3 mission. That's
where Amanda Ryan capsule will
399
00:22:06,760 --> 00:22:09,719
dock with both Blue Origin's
Blue Moon Lunar Lander and the
400
00:22:09,719 --> 00:22:13,400
HLS or Human Landing System
version of Starship in low Earth
401
00:22:13,400 --> 00:22:14,030
orbit.
402
00:22:14,400 --> 00:22:18,020
The Artemis 3 crew will evaluate
Orion's systems, propulsion and
403
00:22:18,020 --> 00:22:21,199
communications, as well as
spacecraft interoperability
404
00:22:21,199 --> 00:22:24,060
through a series of rendezvous
and docking demonstrations
405
00:22:24,060 --> 00:22:26,540
involving both Starship and Blue
Moon.
406
00:22:27,030 --> 00:22:29,880
The Blue Origin Vehicle Blue
Moon will have the same crew
407
00:22:29,880 --> 00:22:33,160
module as the Blue Moon Mark 2
test vehicle, complete with a
408
00:22:33,160 --> 00:22:36,640
functioning life support system,
thereby allowing the Artemis 3
409
00:22:36,640 --> 00:22:40,400
crew to enter and evaluate its
systems. However, its propulsion
410
00:22:40,400 --> 00:22:43,400
system will use storable
propellants instead of cryogenic
411
00:22:43,400 --> 00:22:44,189
fuels.
412
00:22:44,640 --> 00:22:48,359
Meanwhile, SpaceX's Starship HLS
is expected to be equipped with
413
00:22:48,359 --> 00:22:51,939
a docking mechanism, but not an
operational life support system.
414
00:22:52,400 --> 00:22:55,359
So the crew will remain on board
Orion rather than entering the
415
00:22:55,359 --> 00:22:55,989
vehicle.
416
00:22:56,349 --> 00:22:59,959
Currently, both lunar landers
remain under development, and
417
00:22:59,959 --> 00:23:03,359
both are yet to complete NASA's
human rating certification
418
00:23:03,359 --> 00:23:07,640
process required before manned
operations can take place. After
419
00:23:07,640 --> 00:23:10,680
all that's done, NASA will
decide which lunar lander
420
00:23:10,680 --> 00:23:13,839
they'll use for the historic
Artemis 4 mission returning
421
00:23:13,839 --> 00:23:17,920
humans to the lunar surface.
This is space-time.
422
00:23:33,420 --> 00:23:35,619
And time now to take a brief
look at some of the other
423
00:23:35,619 --> 00:23:38,719
stories making news in science
this week with a Science Report.
424
00:23:39,479 --> 00:23:42,089
Scientists have developed a new
blood test to help look for
425
00:23:42,089 --> 00:23:45,930
signs of Alzheimer's. The new
test works by detecting a
426
00:23:45,930 --> 00:23:49,930
protein called phosphor-related
Tau 217, which is a biomarker
427
00:23:49,930 --> 00:23:53,670
for a build-up of amyloid plaque
in the brain. It's this sticky
428
00:23:53,670 --> 00:23:56,969
plaque which is thought to play
a central role in Alzheimer's
429
00:23:56,969 --> 00:23:57,510
disease.
430
00:23:57,900 --> 00:24:00,579
The new test could provide
results in as little as 18
431
00:24:00,579 --> 00:24:03,420
minutes, detecting changes in
the brain decades before
432
00:24:03,420 --> 00:24:07,140
symptoms develop. Australia's
Therapeutic Goods Administration
433
00:24:07,140 --> 00:24:10,819
has already approved clinical
trials of Tau 217, which are
434
00:24:10,819 --> 00:24:12,199
expected to begin shortly.
435
00:24:13,540 --> 00:24:17,180
A new study has found that
e-scooter riders are 3.5 times
436
00:24:17,180 --> 00:24:20,339
more likely than motorcyclists
to suffer traumatic brain
437
00:24:20,339 --> 00:24:23,729
injuries. The findings published
in the journal Scientific
438
00:24:23,729 --> 00:24:27,810
Reports are based on data from
more than 15,000 British trauma
439
00:24:27,810 --> 00:24:32,140
patients. The authors say unlike
people on motorbikes, e-scooter
440
00:24:32,140 --> 00:24:34,170
riders rarely wear helmets.
441
00:24:34,579 --> 00:24:37,209
They're also more likely to
damage their internal organs,
442
00:24:37,300 --> 00:24:40,500
but less likely to fracture
bones than motorcycle riders or
443
00:24:40,500 --> 00:24:44,479
bicycle riders for that matter.
Analyzing more than 20,000
444
00:24:44,479 --> 00:24:47,239
self-reported e-scooter
incidents, the study also found
445
00:24:47,239 --> 00:24:50,560
women reported worse injuries,
possibly because e-scooters
446
00:24:50,560 --> 00:24:53,099
appear to be designed more for
male body proportions.
447
00:24:54,630 --> 00:24:58,000
A remarkably well preserved
fossil from Mongolia's Gobi
448
00:24:58,000 --> 00:25:00,959
Desert is reshaping Sarz's
understanding of mammal
449
00:25:00,959 --> 00:25:05,239
evolution during the age of
dinosaurs. Based on their fossil
450
00:25:05,239 --> 00:25:09,319
teeth, the new species called
Tan balcoilli has been described
451
00:25:09,319 --> 00:25:12,560
in the journal Nature. It
belongs to a group of extinct
452
00:25:12,560 --> 00:25:15,439
mammals known as zillotides,
which were on a different branch
453
00:25:15,439 --> 00:25:18,300
of early mammal evolution
compared to most modern day
454
00:25:18,300 --> 00:25:19,479
placental mammals.
455
00:25:19,989 --> 00:25:22,760
Zelysts have been known from
isolated teeth and fragmented
456
00:25:22,760 --> 00:25:26,680
fossils for nearly 40 years.
Their distinctive teeth, which
457
00:25:26,680 --> 00:25:29,520
are more specialized for eating
plants rather than sharp
458
00:25:29,520 --> 00:25:32,160
insect-eating teeth found in
many Cretaceous mammals, led
459
00:25:32,160 --> 00:25:35,390
paleontologists to suggest that
they represent an unknown group
460
00:25:35,390 --> 00:25:39,119
of hoofed mammals, and this
newly discovered fossil further
461
00:25:39,119 --> 00:25:40,300
supports that view.
462
00:25:40,719 --> 00:25:44,680
Measuring between 6 and 7 inches
from head to tail, Tamikan had
463
00:25:44,680 --> 00:25:47,869
elongated hind limbs that gave
it an almost rabbit-like
464
00:25:47,869 --> 00:25:50,739
appearance. Based on these
findings, the authors have
465
00:25:50,739 --> 00:25:54,060
concluded that zelastides were
not placental mammals or
466
00:25:54,060 --> 00:25:57,339
especially placental-like in
appearance, but a subset of the
467
00:25:57,510 --> 00:25:59,000
Zellaalastoid group.
468
00:26:00,329 --> 00:26:03,530
A new study has shown that
wireless charging for drones
469
00:26:03,530 --> 00:26:06,810
could be achieved using lasers.
Currently drones run on
470
00:26:06,810 --> 00:26:10,650
batteries and have to land in
order to be recharged. Now
471
00:26:10,650 --> 00:26:13,969
researchers have designed a
piece of tech like a solar cell
472
00:26:13,969 --> 00:26:17,449
and put it onto the wings of a
drone. When they shot a laser
473
00:26:17,449 --> 00:26:20,130
beam at it, the technology
converted the laser's energy
474
00:26:20,130 --> 00:26:22,550
into electricity, making the
propeller spin.
475
00:26:23,109 --> 00:26:26,239
The authors used heat blocking
technology and airflow to keep
476
00:26:26,239 --> 00:26:29,319
the device cool, thereby
overcoming heat build-up from
477
00:26:29,319 --> 00:26:33,079
the laser's energy. A report in
the journal Matter And Light
478
00:26:33,079 --> 00:26:35,719
claims they'll have to address
many more challenges before the
479
00:26:35,719 --> 00:26:39,319
wireless charging system can
take flight. But the authors say
480
00:26:39,319 --> 00:26:42,819
this is the first step towards
refueling aircraft with nothing
481
00:26:42,819 --> 00:26:43,619
but light.
482
00:26:45,140 --> 00:26:48,569
Well, as we've all seen in
recent US Senate hearings, it is
483
00:26:48,569 --> 00:26:51,579
a fact that governments lie to
the public. Politicians do it,
484
00:26:51,660 --> 00:26:55,250
bureaucrats do it, and of course
the fourth estate does it. So it
485
00:26:55,250 --> 00:26:58,099
's easy to understand why people
would be skeptical about the
486
00:26:58,099 --> 00:26:59,449
stuff governments tell you.
487
00:26:59,819 --> 00:27:02,979
And sadly, this has given the
true blue conspiracy theory
488
00:27:02,979 --> 00:27:06,739
Fruit Loops free reign to push
their own beliefs. And one of
489
00:27:06,739 --> 00:27:10,290
the latest is that NASA's recent
Artemis 2 mission, the first in
490
00:27:10,290 --> 00:27:13,260
over half a century to send
humans around the moon, was all
491
00:27:13,260 --> 00:27:14,540
an elaborate fake.
492
00:27:14,920 --> 00:27:18,000
Now it's been labeled a hoax, by
the same sort of mindset that
493
00:27:18,000 --> 00:27:21,479
claimed the original Apollo 11
lunar landing was faked, despite
494
00:27:21,479 --> 00:27:24,040
independent space agencies from
a number of other countries
495
00:27:24,040 --> 00:27:27,030
photographing the landing site,
as well as the return of regular
496
00:27:27,030 --> 00:27:30,079
from the lunar surface at a time
when robotic sample return
497
00:27:30,079 --> 00:27:31,819
missions weren't really a thing.
498
00:27:32,329 --> 00:27:35,050
Also, there's the ability for
you to go out tonight with a
499
00:27:35,050 --> 00:27:38,530
laser beam and shine that beam
on a retroreflector placed on
500
00:27:38,530 --> 00:27:42,130
the moon by human hands and
receive a return signal 2.5
501
00:27:42,130 --> 00:27:44,949
seconds later, proof that humans
walked on the moon.
502
00:27:45,770 --> 00:27:48,890
Or there's the simple fact that
lots of other countries were
503
00:27:48,890 --> 00:27:51,650
involved in the mission,
including Australia, and even
504
00:27:51,650 --> 00:27:55,479
after more than 50 years, no one
involved in the program has
505
00:27:55,479 --> 00:27:58,280
denied the fact that it
happened. And when you consider
506
00:27:58,280 --> 00:28:01,130
how government's leak and how
people like to boast, that's
507
00:28:01,130 --> 00:28:02,050
pretty impressive.
508
00:28:02,689 --> 00:28:06,050
So, the takeaway is, you don't
have to believe what governments
509
00:28:06,050 --> 00:28:08,719
tell you, but when a dozen
different sources are all giving
510
00:28:08,719 --> 00:28:11,900
you the same advice, they may
just be speaking the truth.
511
00:28:12,369 --> 00:28:14,770
Which brings us to an
interesting survey of US
512
00:28:14,770 --> 00:28:18,010
residents conducted by the
University Of New Hampshire. It
513
00:28:18,010 --> 00:28:21,599
shows that 10% of respondents
still think NASA faked the moon
514
00:28:21,599 --> 00:28:22,410
landings.
515
00:28:22,969 --> 00:28:25,290
So as you can see, the
collateral damage caused by
516
00:28:25,290 --> 00:28:28,530
dishonest government goes deep
and affects many unintended
517
00:28:28,530 --> 00:28:32,810
areas. The skeptics Tim Minden
says it also shows an appalling
518
00:28:32,810 --> 00:28:35,609
lack of basic scientific
understanding. We're talking
519
00:28:35,609 --> 00:28:38,729
high school level stuff here,
the sort of things that can't be
520
00:28:38,729 --> 00:28:39,010
faked.
521
00:28:39,170 --> 00:28:41,209
We've sort of seen this before,
don't we? Anything that comes
522
00:28:41,209 --> 00:28:44,109
out of NASA or anything that
comes out of a scientific body,
523
00:28:44,290 --> 00:28:46,569
there's always some people who
respond instantly saying it's a
524
00:28:46,569 --> 00:28:50,130
fake, whether it's the moon
landing or so many 50 years
525
00:28:50,130 --> 00:28:53,849
later, the Artemis 2 mission.
People are instantly saying it's
526
00:28:53,849 --> 00:28:57,209
not true. They're not really in
space. It's a deep fake sort of
527
00:28:57,209 --> 00:28:58,270
AI video.
528
00:28:58,557 --> 00:29:00,467
Honestly, the question is why.
529
00:29:00,717 --> 00:29:02,357
Why? I don't know. You look at
it.
530
00:29:02,416 --> 00:29:04,376
Is it some sort of a
psychological problem these
531
00:29:04,376 --> 00:29:07,626
people have? Is it their need
for relevance? I know that you
532
00:29:07,626 --> 00:29:09,536
don't know and I'm going to tell
you what they are right now.
533
00:29:09,677 --> 00:29:11,536
There's obviously a bit of that.
I mean, people want to get
534
00:29:11,536 --> 00:29:14,756
notoriety, etc. And that's a
pretty cynical motivation, and
535
00:29:14,756 --> 00:29:16,557
there's nothing you can say to
those people, quite frankly,
536
00:29:16,796 --> 00:29:20,116
whether they're a flat earther,
whether they're an Artemis II
537
00:29:20,116 --> 00:29:21,116
conspiracy theory.
538
00:29:21,237 --> 00:29:23,937
You can try and debunk their
beliefs, and if they even accept
539
00:29:23,937 --> 00:29:25,416
that debunking, they'll jump
onto another one.
540
00:29:25,636 --> 00:29:28,744
But once a conspiracy theorist
Almost always a conspiracy
541
00:29:28,744 --> 00:29:31,144
theorist, and the interesting
thing in this story, which I
542
00:29:31,144 --> 00:29:33,254
should add is that the
University Of New Hampshire
543
00:29:33,254 --> 00:29:37,303
pointed out that 58 to 83% of
people agreed with statements of
544
00:29:37,303 --> 00:29:40,173
basic scientific facts, such as
the Earth is billions of years
545
00:29:40,173 --> 00:29:42,823
old or revolves around the Sun.
Now that is worrisome.
546
00:29:43,043 --> 00:29:47,303
They say 58 to 83 means at the
very best 17% of people do
547
00:29:47,303 --> 00:29:49,303
believe that the Earth revolves
around the Sun or that the Earth
548
00:29:49,303 --> 00:29:52,864
is billions of years old, up to
42% of people who don't believe
549
00:29:52,864 --> 00:29:54,624
that thing. You think that's
scientific literacy?
550
00:29:54,744 --> 00:29:57,331
That is as big a worry.
Anything, I think the Artemis
551
00:29:57,331 --> 00:30:00,610
hoaxes are a very small
minority. When you say 42% of
552
00:30:00,610 --> 00:30:02,610
people have trouble with the
Earth being billions of years
553
00:30:02,610 --> 00:30:05,090
old or the Earth revolves around
the Sun, then you know you're in
554
00:30:05,090 --> 00:30:05,421
trouble.
555
00:30:05,531 --> 00:30:08,531
I still get emails from flat
earthers, so yeah, I'm not
556
00:30:08,531 --> 00:30:08,831
surprised.
557
00:30:08,931 --> 00:30:11,291
I haven't had any for a while.
I'm very disappointed. I have
558
00:30:11,291 --> 00:30:13,171
been invited to join the
Illuminati twice.
559
00:30:13,301 --> 00:30:15,541
Yeah, you're too busy with the
Bilderberg Group, aren't you?
560
00:30:15,921 --> 00:30:17,770
That's right, Bilderberg, yeah,
that's the one with the skull,
561
00:30:17,931 --> 00:30:18,651
that's skull and bones.
562
00:30:18,760 --> 00:30:20,120
Look, I've never been to any of
the meetings.
563
00:30:20,211 --> 00:30:21,291
Your absence has been noted.
564
00:30:21,370 --> 00:30:24,531
That's the skeptics Tim Mind,
and this is Space time.
565
00:30:39,890 --> 00:30:43,660
And that's the show for now.
SpaceT is available every
566
00:30:43,660 --> 00:30:47,579
Monday, Wednesday, and Friday
through Bytes.Com, SoundCloud,
567
00:30:47,780 --> 00:30:51,300
YouTube, your favorite podcast
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568
00:30:51,300 --> 00:30:53,319
SpaceTime with Stuart Garry.Com.
569
00:30:54,060 --> 00:30:57,260
SpaceT's also broadcast through
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570
00:30:57,260 --> 00:31:01,219
on Science Zone Radio and on
both IHeartRadio and TuneIn
571
00:31:01,219 --> 00:31:01,819
Radio.
572
00:31:02,219 --> 00:31:05,099
And you can help to support our
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573
00:31:05,099 --> 00:31:09,050
store for a range of promotional
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becoming a SpaceTime patron,
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575
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bonus audio content which
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exclusive Facebook group and
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578
00:31:22,569 --> 00:31:25,819
SpaceTime with Stuart Garry.Com
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579
00:31:26,410 --> 00:31:29,040
You've been listening to
SpaceTime with Stuart Garry.
580
00:31:29,569 --> 00:31:32,449
This has been another quality
podcast production from
581
00:31:32,449 --> 00:31:33,489
Bytes.Com.
00:00:00,170 --> 00:00:04,329
This is SpaceTime series 29,
episode 95, for broadcast on the
2
00:00:04,329 --> 00:00:09,529
10th of August 2026. Coming up
on SpaceTime, spectacular
3
00:00:09,529 --> 00:00:13,880
vortices discovered on the Sun's
surface, the event horizon of
4
00:00:13,880 --> 00:00:18,530
merging black holes seen for the
very first time, and Starship
5
00:00:18,530 --> 00:00:21,530
recovery efforts now underway
off the Western Australian
6
00:00:21,530 --> 00:00:26,030
coastline. All that and more
coming up on SpaceTime.
7
00:00:27,110 --> 00:00:30,459
Welcome to space time with
Stuart Garry.
8
00:00:46,400 --> 00:00:49,430
Astronomers have for the first
time observed swirling
9
00:00:49,430 --> 00:00:53,340
whirlpool-like vortices deep
inside the Sun's photosphere, it
10
00:00:53,340 --> 00:00:57,620
's visible surface. The
structures called Kelvin Helmont
11
00:00:57,620 --> 00:01:00,759
's instabilities, which were
detected on the edges of solar
12
00:01:00,759 --> 00:01:04,480
magnetic regions, are a major
step forward in science's
13
00:01:04,480 --> 00:01:07,489
understanding of the dynamics
and evolution of solar and
14
00:01:07,489 --> 00:01:08,709
stellar plasma.
15
00:01:09,110 --> 00:01:12,550
The findings reported in the
journal Nature are based on data
16
00:01:12,550 --> 00:01:15,440
collected by the world's largest
solar telescope, the National
17
00:01:15,440 --> 00:01:18,910
Science Foundation's Daniel K.
Inoe Solar Telescope on the
18
00:01:18,910 --> 00:01:20,529
Hawaiian island of Maui.
19
00:01:20,919 --> 00:01:24,720
The new time lapse video and
images reveal a solar landscape
20
00:01:24,720 --> 00:01:27,919
unlike anything ever seen
before, and it's allowed the
21
00:01:27,919 --> 00:01:31,519
first ever confirmation of
Kelvin Helmholt's instabilities,
22
00:01:31,639 --> 00:01:34,870
a phenomenon that's long been
predicted by theory but couldn't
23
00:01:34,870 --> 00:01:39,199
be proven until now. Kelvin
Helmholt's instabilities are an
24
00:01:39,199 --> 00:01:40,879
effect caused by fluid motion.
25
00:01:41,379 --> 00:01:44,260
It occurs when two fluids slide
past each other at different
26
00:01:44,260 --> 00:01:47,739
velocities, creating a sort of
sheer effect at the interface,
27
00:01:47,819 --> 00:01:51,459
causing small disturbances to
grow into striking wave-like or
28
00:01:51,459 --> 00:01:54,739
spiraling vortices, looking like
breaking ocean waves.
29
00:01:55,309 --> 00:01:58,470
Since its original formulation
by Lord Kelvin, Hermann von
30
00:01:58,470 --> 00:02:02,180
Helmholtz around 1870,
Kelvin-Helmholtz's instabilities
31
00:02:02,180 --> 00:02:05,309
have been observed and
investigated across many areas
32
00:02:05,309 --> 00:02:08,309
of physics, including fluid
dynamics, meteorology,
33
00:02:08,429 --> 00:02:11,710
oceanography, heliophysics, and
astrophysics.
34
00:02:12,070 --> 00:02:15,550
Instabilities observed at a
variety of scales, from small
35
00:02:15,550 --> 00:02:18,990
lake and ocean waves in windy
conditions to cloud formations
36
00:02:18,990 --> 00:02:22,149
on Earth, to the atmosphere of
gas giants like Saturn and
37
00:02:22,149 --> 00:02:25,130
Jupiter, and the interaction of
the solar wind, the constant
38
00:02:25,130 --> 00:02:27,869
stream of charged particles
flowing out from the Sun with
39
00:02:27,869 --> 00:02:30,970
planetary magnetospheres within
our own solar system.
40
00:02:32,130 --> 00:02:34,919
One of the study's authors, the
deputy director of the National
41
00:02:34,919 --> 00:02:38,119
Solar Observatory, David
Bobholtz, says the discovery of
42
00:02:38,119 --> 00:02:41,559
Kelvin Helmholtz's instability
in the solar photosphere, backed
43
00:02:41,559 --> 00:02:44,759
up by numerical computer
simulation analysis, represents
44
00:02:44,759 --> 00:02:48,679
a major scientific breakthrough.
The swirling vortices of
45
00:02:48,679 --> 00:02:51,720
magnetic solar plasma have
become an area of increased
46
00:02:51,720 --> 00:02:53,520
interest for solar physicists.
47
00:02:54,009 --> 00:02:57,039
They could be an effective
source of free magnetic energy
48
00:02:57,039 --> 00:03:00,139
which powers major solar
activity, including explosive
49
00:03:00,139 --> 00:03:04,449
events from tiny nano flares to
massive solar flares, jets and
50
00:03:04,449 --> 00:03:08,009
coronal mass ejections. And of
course these are the main
51
00:03:08,009 --> 00:03:11,289
contributors to space weather,
which can severely disrupt our
52
00:03:11,289 --> 00:03:14,210
modern technological
infrastructure, including power
53
00:03:14,210 --> 00:03:18,050
grids, satellites, GPS
navigation systems, and global
54
00:03:18,050 --> 00:03:19,250
communications.
55
00:03:20,139 --> 00:03:24,070
The leading theory on how the
Sun builds up magnetic energy is
56
00:03:24,070 --> 00:03:27,949
known as flux braiding. As
magnetic field lines twist
57
00:03:27,949 --> 00:03:31,039
around each other like braiding
hair, they create a tense,
58
00:03:31,110 --> 00:03:32,490
unstable setup.
59
00:03:33,029 --> 00:03:35,910
When that tension gets rapidly
released, the tangled magnetic
60
00:03:35,910 --> 00:03:39,309
field lines snap across each
other and then reconnect in new
61
00:03:39,309 --> 00:03:42,220
shapes through magnetic
reconnection. And this sudden
62
00:03:42,220 --> 00:03:45,910
rearrangement releases a massive
burst of energy as the system
63
00:03:45,910 --> 00:03:48,789
settles back down into a calmer,
lower energy state.
64
00:03:49,589 --> 00:03:52,710
What scientists don't fully
understand yet is what causes
65
00:03:52,710 --> 00:03:54,990
the magnetic twisting and
braiding to happen in the first
66
00:03:54,990 --> 00:03:58,990
place, and that's where this new
discovery comes in. Those small
67
00:03:58,990 --> 00:04:02,389
swirling patterns from the
Kelvin Helmholtz instability
68
00:04:02,389 --> 00:04:04,729
might be the answer, or at least
part of it.
69
00:04:05,800 --> 00:04:08,669
Since the swirls seem to be
happening consistently and
70
00:04:08,669 --> 00:04:11,389
everywhere on the Sun's surface
with the magnetic field strong
71
00:04:11,389 --> 00:04:13,869
enough, they could be the
everyday engine that keeps
72
00:04:13,869 --> 00:04:16,869
twisting the magnetic field
lines and consequently setting
73
00:04:16,869 --> 00:04:20,220
the whole process in motion. So
the authors analyzed and
74
00:04:20,220 --> 00:04:24,019
compared the high resolution IOA
observations with computer
75
00:04:24,019 --> 00:04:27,309
simulations of the solar
photosphere created using highly
76
00:04:27,309 --> 00:04:28,510
specialized codes.
77
00:04:29,040 --> 00:04:32,359
These computer simulations are
built using some basic physics
78
00:04:32,359 --> 00:04:34,880
equations that describe what's
happening in the Sun's
79
00:04:34,880 --> 00:04:37,359
atmosphere, and they're an
important tool in the
80
00:04:37,359 --> 00:04:40,920
interpretation of scientific
data, allowing astronomers to
81
00:04:40,920 --> 00:04:43,839
see things that are hard or even
impossible to measure directly
82
00:04:43,839 --> 00:04:47,839
by observation, thereby giving
them a real insight into
83
00:04:47,839 --> 00:04:49,899
processes that would otherwise
be hidden.
84
00:04:50,299 --> 00:04:53,779
And the authors found literally
dozens of vortex-like structures
85
00:04:53,779 --> 00:04:56,920
along the edges of magnetic
areas, both in the observations
86
00:04:56,920 --> 00:05:00,059
and in the simulations, which
were both strikingly similar in
87
00:05:00,059 --> 00:05:02,130
characteristics and dynamics.
88
00:05:02,500 --> 00:05:05,899
For example, the average space
distance between vortices, known
89
00:05:05,899 --> 00:05:09,339
as the instability wavelength,
ranged from between 50 and 65
90
00:05:09,339 --> 00:05:13,420
kilometers in both cases. The
study shows that our Sun's
91
00:05:13,420 --> 00:05:17,019
consistently bubbling surface or
granulation interacts with
92
00:05:17,019 --> 00:05:20,260
magnetic structures to create
areas where neighboring layers
93
00:05:20,260 --> 00:05:23,410
move at different speeds,
providing the conditions
94
00:05:23,410 --> 00:05:25,959
necessary to trigger Kelvin
Helmholtz's instability.
95
00:05:26,739 --> 00:05:30,320
The National Solar Observatory's
chief technologist Thomas Ramil
96
00:05:30,320 --> 00:05:33,140
says Kelvin Helmholtz's
instability is a likely
97
00:05:33,140 --> 00:05:35,820
mechanism that contributes to
the heating of the Sun's outer
98
00:05:35,820 --> 00:05:39,019
atmosphere, the corona, which is
millions of degrees hotter than
99
00:05:39,019 --> 00:05:41,540
the Sun's surface, and that's
been one of the biggest
100
00:05:41,540 --> 00:05:44,579
mysteries in solar physics.
After all, things are supposed
101
00:05:44,579 --> 00:05:47,519
to get cooler the further away
you are from the heat source.
102
00:05:48,579 --> 00:05:51,980
The data also shows that the
swirling effect efficiently
103
00:05:51,980 --> 00:05:54,980
mixes magnetized and
non-magnetized plasma on the Sun
104
00:05:54,980 --> 00:05:58,660
's surface, thereby enhancing
the diffusion of magnetic fields
105
00:05:58,660 --> 00:06:02,299
throughout the solar atmosphere.
The diffusion resulting from
106
00:06:02,299 --> 00:06:06,019
Kelvin Helmholtz instability is
a key factor scientists use when
107
00:06:06,019 --> 00:06:09,540
building models to predict how
magnetic activity changes over
108
00:06:09,540 --> 00:06:13,160
time, not just for our Sun, but
for other stars as well.
109
00:06:13,529 --> 00:06:17,359
The Sun's magnetic field is
generated by a dynamo process
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which acts sort of like giant
cosmic engines, turning the star
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00:06:20,680 --> 00:06:24,290
's rotational energy into
magnetic fields. However,
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00:06:24,529 --> 00:06:27,529
because the solar magnetic cycle
is only 11 years long, a
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remarkably rapid time scale in
cosmic terms, the generated
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00:06:30,730 --> 00:06:34,329
magnetic flux must dissipate
efficiently, and current models
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00:06:34,329 --> 00:06:36,730
struggle to explain this rapid
diffusion.
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00:06:37,220 --> 00:06:40,940
And that's where Kelvin Helmholt
's instabilities come in. They
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could act as a key source for
this missing magnetic diffusion.
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This is SpaceTime. Still to
come, the event horizon of
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merging black holes seen for the
first time, and Starship
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recovery efforts now underway
off the Western Australian
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coast. All that and more still
to come on SpaceTime.
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Astronomers have for the first
time detected gravitational
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00:07:17,959 --> 00:07:21,880
waves from the event horizon
during the actual merger of two
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black holes. The observations
reported in the journal Nature
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are opening a new window into
one of the most fascinating and
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least understood processes in
science. It's where quantum
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physics and theories of general
relativity intersect.
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A black hole is a point of
infinite density in zero volume,
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00:07:40,279 --> 00:07:44,049
singularity. They're called
black holes because nothing, not
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even light, can escape its pull
if it gets too close.
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00:07:47,779 --> 00:07:50,779
That's because the escape
velocity from a black hole is
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greater than the speed of light,
and the event horizon is that
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point of no return surrounding a
black hole beyond which matter
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and energy can no longer escape
the singularity's gravitational
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00:08:01,420 --> 00:08:04,149
pull, disappearing forever from
our universe.
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They say in space no one can
hear you scream, but it seems
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00:08:08,619 --> 00:08:11,940
that you really can hear the
sound of a crash when two black
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holes collide. Using the loudest
gravitational waves ever heard,
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00:08:16,339 --> 00:08:19,149
scientists have for the first
time been able to witness the
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00:08:19,149 --> 00:08:22,619
previously elusive event horizon
at the actual moment of
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00:08:22,619 --> 00:08:25,980
collision right before all the
light, sound, and matter are
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00:08:25,980 --> 00:08:29,359
swallowed for eternity by the
newly formed black hole.
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The authors measured this last
sound, a gravitational wave,
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which the black holes made when
they crashed. Hidden within that
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00:08:37,849 --> 00:08:41,359
signal is a small component
called direct waves, which had
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not previously been well
understood, and this allowed the
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authors to measure two
fundamental black hole
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properties from close to the
event horizon, rotational
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frequency and surface gravity.
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The scientists studied the
gravitational wave signal coming
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from an event called GW 250114,
which was recorded last year by
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the LIGO Laser Interferometer
Gravitational Wave Observatories
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00:09:03,729 --> 00:09:09,169
in Louisiana and Washington
state. The GW 250114 black hole
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00:09:09,169 --> 00:09:12,950
merger was the loudest binary
black hole signal ever observed,
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00:09:13,010 --> 00:09:15,960
and some three times louder than
the first gravitational wave
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00:09:15,960 --> 00:09:17,710
signal detected over a decade
ago.
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00:09:18,830 --> 00:09:21,669
One of the study's authors,
Professor Robert Ward from the
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00:09:21,669 --> 00:09:24,710
Australian National University,
says these measurements Mark a
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00:09:24,710 --> 00:09:27,869
first step towards future tests
of general relativity using
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00:09:27,869 --> 00:09:28,830
direct waves.
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It means astrophysicists will be
able to study the strength of
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extreme gravity at the black
hole's event horizon, as well as
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phenomena like frame dragging,
where black holes quite
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00:09:38,780 --> 00:09:42,979
literally are dragging the very
fabric of space and time, in the
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00:09:42,979 --> 00:09:46,099
process, creating an environment
where nothing is able to remain
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00:09:46,099 --> 00:09:48,390
stationary relative to a distant
observer.
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00:09:48,530 --> 00:09:50,900
When two black holes are
merging, they, they start off
168
00:09:50,900 --> 00:09:54,340
far away from each other, and so
they gradually spiral into each
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00:09:54,340 --> 00:09:57,539
other, getting closer and
closer, and then at some final
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point, they crash into each
other.
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And they make a heavier black
hole at the end of this. And
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this is what we see with
gravitational waves, which we
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first saw just over 10 years
ago, and we've been able to view
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this process and we've seen
hundreds and hundreds of black
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holes doing this now.
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00:10:11,466 --> 00:10:13,635
The merger of black holes and
gravitational waves is
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fascinating. Sounds like a
chirp, just increasing in
178
00:10:16,356 --> 00:10:18,335
frequency in gravitational
waves, at least.
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00:10:18,435 --> 00:10:21,156
Sounds exactly like a bird
chirp. Exactly. That is because
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the two black holes getting
closer to each other, so they
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move faster. And when they move
faster, the wave carries higher
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00:10:28,116 --> 00:10:32,091
frequency. That's why you hear
like when we see the waveform,
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00:10:32,252 --> 00:10:34,771
the frequency gets higher when
they get closer and they
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eventually merge.
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And you saw another wave within
that structure.
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00:10:39,132 --> 00:10:43,091
What we did is we decoded a
piece of the signal which was
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inside of these observations
that we've been making that no
188
00:10:45,812 --> 00:10:49,052
one was previously able to
interpret, and we've brought in
189
00:10:49,052 --> 00:10:52,731
a new way to be able to clean
out all the other stuff, which
190
00:10:52,731 --> 00:10:54,331
is hiding this piece of the
signal.
191
00:10:54,442 --> 00:10:57,531
And so then we can isolate this
part of the signal, which is
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00:10:57,531 --> 00:11:00,408
very interesting, which. Tells
us a lot about the physics near
193
00:11:00,408 --> 00:11:03,268
the black hole horizon and
allows us to test what's going
194
00:11:03,268 --> 00:11:04,468
on in this region of space.
195
00:11:04,547 --> 00:11:07,377
And this was the direct waves.
Yeah, exactly right. And what
196
00:11:07,377 --> 00:11:08,107
does that tell you?
197
00:11:08,187 --> 00:11:11,828
Well, that, that is very
interesting. You know, black
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00:11:11,828 --> 00:11:16,307
hole event horizon, that is
usually referred as a point of
199
00:11:16,307 --> 00:11:19,908
no return. Nothing can escape,
not even light, but this direct
200
00:11:19,908 --> 00:11:24,588
wave component actually brings
us some inklings. The remnant
201
00:11:24,588 --> 00:11:28,028
black hole horizon leaves in
the, in the gravitational wave
202
00:11:28,028 --> 00:11:28,427
signal.
203
00:11:28,523 --> 00:11:33,153
That actually allow us to test
the black hole horizon, its
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00:11:33,153 --> 00:11:36,523
frequency and surface gravity.
In other words, like how fast
205
00:11:36,523 --> 00:11:40,684
the horizon is spinning and how
strong the gravity is near the
206
00:11:40,684 --> 00:11:43,883
black hole horizon. That is the
key information we can decode
207
00:11:43,883 --> 00:11:45,963
out of this direct wave
component.
208
00:11:46,114 --> 00:11:49,073
And what does that tell you
about the physics of the merger
209
00:11:49,073 --> 00:11:53,164
itself? Are the vet horizons
moving in the same direction? Is
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00:11:53,164 --> 00:11:56,244
the black hole spinning? Is the
singularity spinning in the same
211
00:11:56,244 --> 00:11:58,940
direction, or are they in
opposite directions? Can they be
212
00:11:58,940 --> 00:12:01,700
in any way at all? Is there some
sort of synchronicity going on
213
00:12:01,700 --> 00:12:02,919
just prior to the merger?
214
00:12:03,020 --> 00:12:06,020
This tells us a lot about the
remnant black hole, so the black
215
00:12:06,020 --> 00:12:09,619
hole which is formed at the end
of everything, and this is also
216
00:12:09,619 --> 00:12:12,760
why this direct wave is so
powerful, because you're right,
217
00:12:13,059 --> 00:12:15,659
before the merger, there's all
of this complicated physics
218
00:12:15,659 --> 00:12:18,330
going on, you know, are they
spinning in the same direction?
219
00:12:18,500 --> 00:12:21,219
How heavy are they one compared
to the other, etc.
220
00:12:21,369 --> 00:12:24,059
There's a lot of different
parameters, whereas this direct
221
00:12:24,059 --> 00:12:27,690
wave is actually extremely
simple in the sense of it only
222
00:12:27,690 --> 00:12:30,635
depends on these. Two very
simple properties. And so this
223
00:12:30,635 --> 00:12:34,505
is also what makes the direct
wave so interesting in that it
224
00:12:34,505 --> 00:12:38,265
reveals a lot of insight into
the remnant black holes, horizon
225
00:12:38,265 --> 00:12:38,825
physics.
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00:12:38,916 --> 00:12:42,195
Also kind of interesting because
when the final black hole is
227
00:12:42,195 --> 00:12:44,796
formed, it's highly spinning,
right, because the two black
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00:12:44,796 --> 00:12:48,585
holes form one and it's spinning
really fast. It drags the
229
00:12:48,585 --> 00:12:52,635
space-time around it. So we call
it a frame dragging, then kind
230
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of it removes some of the
history, like complicated
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00:12:55,916 --> 00:12:57,955
history before the black hole
merge.
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And when it gets to the final
stage, it sort of just gets
233
00:13:01,601 --> 00:13:05,091
dragged by the final black hole.
And that's why the direct wave
234
00:13:05,091 --> 00:13:08,611
piece is so clean and just to
carry the information of the
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final black hole. Will this
help.
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00:13:10,052 --> 00:13:13,731
With studies of topology in
black holes and trying to
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00:13:13,731 --> 00:13:14,952
understand Hawking radiation?
238
00:13:15,052 --> 00:13:19,452
Oh, that's a very interesting
question. I think this is the
239
00:13:19,452 --> 00:13:23,421
start of being able to analyze
and study, like you said, the
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00:13:23,421 --> 00:13:26,492
topology and the space-time
physics with this part of the
241
00:13:26,492 --> 00:13:27,851
signal. We hope eventually.
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00:13:27,968 --> 00:13:31,507
It may provide insights into all
of that, but that's still kind
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00:13:31,507 --> 00:13:35,067
of, we're still just opening
this door to trying to
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00:13:35,067 --> 00:13:37,668
understand how to use it. So we
can't give a conclusive answer
245
00:13:37,668 --> 00:13:40,247
yet about what insight it may
bring in the future.
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00:13:40,307 --> 00:13:44,388
I think lots of work still needs
to be done to better understand
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00:13:44,388 --> 00:13:48,578
this kind of information and
maybe possibly open some new
248
00:13:48,578 --> 00:13:53,468
avenues to study black hole
horizon physics, and like
249
00:13:53,468 --> 00:13:54,888
fundamental physics or.
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00:13:55,028 --> 00:13:56,828
General relativity, Hawking
radiation, yeah.
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00:13:57,804 --> 00:14:00,924
Very little about black holes
other than their mass and their
252
00:14:00,924 --> 00:14:03,703
rotation. What can we still
learn from them?
253
00:14:04,864 --> 00:14:08,283
So one thing I guess is, at the
end of the day, black holes are
254
00:14:08,283 --> 00:14:11,604
remarkably simple objects. Like
you said, they only have their
255
00:14:11,604 --> 00:14:14,564
mass, their rotational
frequency, and theoretically
256
00:14:14,564 --> 00:14:18,164
they they could have charge, but
for any real black hole, it's
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00:14:18,164 --> 00:14:19,604
extremely unlikely they have
charge.
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00:14:19,684 --> 00:14:22,804
So even though we know so
little, you know, you say we
259
00:14:22,804 --> 00:14:25,523
know relatively little about it,
that's because there's not that
260
00:14:25,523 --> 00:14:27,564
much to understand about the
black hole itself.
261
00:14:28,059 --> 00:14:31,380
But then we're also incredibly
interested in probing the
262
00:14:31,380 --> 00:14:34,429
physics just outside the black
hole, the physics near the
263
00:14:34,429 --> 00:14:37,469
horizon, and this is where a lot
of the interesting things like
264
00:14:37,469 --> 00:14:40,789
Hawking radiation happen, where
you have the interaction, might
265
00:14:40,789 --> 00:14:43,299
have the interaction between
general relativity and quantum
266
00:14:43,299 --> 00:14:47,030
mechanics, and so probing this
region just outside the black
267
00:14:47,030 --> 00:14:50,690
hole horizon is what we hope to
be able to contribute something
268
00:14:50,989 --> 00:14:52,809
to with this direct wave signal.
269
00:14:52,950 --> 00:14:56,989
Now this particular black hole
merger you were looking at, GW.
270
00:14:57,122 --> 00:15:01,901
250114. How far away was it?
What do we know about its
271
00:15:01,901 --> 00:15:02,802
location in space.
272
00:15:02,802 --> 00:15:10,541
And I think it's about 400 meg
per second away from us, roughly
273
00:15:10,601 --> 00:15:13,192
1.3 billion light years.
274
00:15:13,302 --> 00:15:15,742
Do we know about the mass of the
progenitor black holes.
275
00:15:15,841 --> 00:15:18,601
Yeah, so they are formed by
approximately 2 black holes,
276
00:15:18,642 --> 00:15:22,271
which were each about 30 solar
masses, 30 times the mass of the
277
00:15:22,271 --> 00:15:26,031
Sun. And one interesting thing
about GW 250114 is it's a Mark.
278
00:15:26,624 --> 00:15:29,973
Standard system, that's to say,
we have seen lots of other
279
00:15:29,973 --> 00:15:32,914
systems with very similar
properties, similar initial
280
00:15:32,914 --> 00:15:36,254
masses, similar initial spins,
mass ratios, etc.
281
00:15:36,414 --> 00:15:40,494
But the uniquely interesting
thing about GW 250114 is that it
282
00:15:40,494 --> 00:15:44,674
is relatively closer, and so we
can see this extremely loudly,
283
00:15:44,684 --> 00:15:48,133
and so we are able to use this
to do lots of tests for physics.
284
00:15:48,374 --> 00:15:52,593
The remarkably loud loudness of
the signal is because we have
285
00:15:52,593 --> 00:15:56,666
our detector way better than 10
years ago. A lot of work getting
286
00:15:56,666 --> 00:16:00,666
into upgrading these extremely
sensitive detectors over these
287
00:16:00,666 --> 00:16:04,906
10 years. So almost a similar
signal as 10 years ago actually
288
00:16:04,906 --> 00:16:08,745
gives us a much, much cleaner
signal in our detector, and we
289
00:16:08,745 --> 00:16:11,346
are able to carry out these
detailed studies.
290
00:16:12,015 --> 00:16:14,306
Of course one of the big
problems about gravitational
291
00:16:14,306 --> 00:16:17,625
wave detectors is that there
aren't many of them, so working
292
00:16:17,625 --> 00:16:20,945
on exactly where an object is in
space is still difficult. We've
293
00:16:20,945 --> 00:16:23,945
got the two in the United States
on either side of the country.
294
00:16:24,026 --> 00:16:24,265
You've got.
295
00:16:24,518 --> 00:16:28,478
One in Europe and one in Japan
and others are being built, but
296
00:16:28,478 --> 00:16:30,997
we were offered one in Australia
at some stage, but the
297
00:16:30,997 --> 00:16:33,638
government of the day turned it
down, which is very sad. But we
298
00:16:33,638 --> 00:16:36,437
need more gravitational wave
detectors to get a better
299
00:16:36,437 --> 00:16:37,757
picture of what's happening in
space.
300
00:16:37,918 --> 00:16:41,838
Yeah, for sure. And actually a
group of people in Australia are
301
00:16:41,838 --> 00:16:45,297
working really hard to propose a
gravitational wave detector in
302
00:16:45,297 --> 00:16:49,257
the future in Australia and a
much better one for better study
303
00:16:49,257 --> 00:16:51,107
in getting deeper into the
universe.
304
00:16:51,237 --> 00:16:52,038
This is Ausgrave.
305
00:16:52,117 --> 00:16:56,169
Ausgrave. Yeah, including
everyone working in Agraph and
306
00:16:56,169 --> 00:16:57,349
the bigger community.
307
00:16:57,570 --> 00:17:00,049
Oh, fingers crossed with that.
How advanced are those
308
00:17:00,049 --> 00:17:00,500
proposals?
309
00:17:00,609 --> 00:17:03,289
I guess that's still at an early
stage because, you know,
310
00:17:03,650 --> 00:17:06,579
internationally, there are
proposals for the next
311
00:17:06,579 --> 00:17:09,489
generation gravitational wave
detectors. They will be way more
312
00:17:09,489 --> 00:17:11,869
sensitive than what we have
right now.
313
00:17:11,890 --> 00:17:15,689
And there are proposals in the
US, in Europe, and in other
314
00:17:15,689 --> 00:17:19,189
countries as well, and Australia
is also working on the proposal
315
00:17:19,189 --> 00:17:23,381
and looking into pathways to get
to future. Better, more
316
00:17:23,381 --> 00:17:26,161
sensitive gravitational wave
detectors which can bring us
317
00:17:26,161 --> 00:17:27,702
more fascinating signs.
318
00:17:27,862 --> 00:17:31,381
So that would maybe allow us not
just to observe in gravitational
319
00:17:31,381 --> 00:17:34,421
waves black holes and neutron
star mergers and things like
320
00:17:34,421 --> 00:17:37,342
that, but maybe even the merger
of supermassive black holes. Is
321
00:17:37,342 --> 00:17:38,482
that what we're talking about?
322
00:17:39,222 --> 00:17:43,342
That will be a different
frequency range that will be
323
00:17:43,342 --> 00:17:47,982
something we can observe with
future space-based gravitational
324
00:17:47,982 --> 00:17:51,021
wave detectors. That's LISA,
right? And actually, in terms
325
00:17:51,021 --> 00:17:51,462
of.
326
00:17:51,634 --> 00:17:54,874
Massive black hole, there's
another way to study them, which
327
00:17:54,874 --> 00:17:58,813
is already happening with a set
of pulsars, which is called
328
00:17:58,813 --> 00:18:02,683
pulsar timing array. They are
using these pulsars, the
329
00:18:02,683 --> 00:18:07,614
astrophysical object, as like a
telescope in the sky to study
330
00:18:07,784 --> 00:18:10,073
the background of supermassive
black holes.
331
00:18:10,193 --> 00:18:13,713
So when the pulsar signals get
out askew, then you know there's
332
00:18:13,713 --> 00:18:16,284
a black hole merge, supermassive
black hole merger going on.
333
00:18:16,394 --> 00:18:20,274
Yeah, this is like a pulsar have
really good timing and their
334
00:18:20,274 --> 00:18:24,446
signal. Arrive on Earth should
be super accurate, but if the
335
00:18:24,446 --> 00:18:28,286
space-time is sort of changed by
the passing by gravitational
336
00:18:28,286 --> 00:18:31,845
wave, the gravitational wave
background, then the pulsar
337
00:18:31,845 --> 00:18:33,166
signals arrived.
338
00:18:33,245 --> 00:18:37,926
The time of those pulsar signals
will be slightly changed
339
00:18:37,926 --> 00:18:41,125
depending on which direction it
comes from. So we can use that
340
00:18:41,125 --> 00:18:45,526
kind of information to infer the
space-time geometry in the
341
00:18:45,526 --> 00:18:45,965
universe.
342
00:18:46,086 --> 00:18:49,316
That's Professor Robert Ward
from the Australian National
343
00:18:49,316 --> 00:18:54,060
University. And this is space
time. Still to come, SpaceX
344
00:18:54,060 --> 00:18:56,890
Starship recovery efforts now
underway off the Western
345
00:18:56,890 --> 00:19:00,060
Australian coast and later in
the Science Report, reshaping
346
00:19:00,060 --> 00:19:02,969
science's understanding of the
evolution of mammals during the
347
00:19:02,969 --> 00:19:07,619
age of dinosaurs. All that and
more still to come on SpaceTime.
348
00:19:23,599 --> 00:19:27,729
SpaceX are towing their Test 13
Starship prototype back to shore
349
00:19:27,729 --> 00:19:31,359
after it survived its Indian
Ocean splashdown off the Western
350
00:19:31,359 --> 00:19:34,530
Australian coast. While other
test flights have succeeded in
351
00:19:34,530 --> 00:19:38,079
achieving a soft landing in the
sea, Ship 40 as the spacecraft's
352
00:19:38,079 --> 00:19:41,540
known, is the first not to
explode and sink. To be honest,
353
00:19:41,739 --> 00:19:44,329
SpaceX weren't expecting to
recover Ship 40.
354
00:19:45,180 --> 00:19:47,939
The Starship had just completed
a successful test flight,
355
00:19:48,010 --> 00:19:51,270
launching on its super heavy
rocket booster from SpaceX's
356
00:19:51,270 --> 00:19:54,500
starbase on the Texas Gulf
Coast, completing a textbook
357
00:19:54,500 --> 00:19:57,780
stage separation and then ascent
to its planned suborbital
358
00:19:57,780 --> 00:20:01,650
altitude. Once in space, it
successfully deployed 20
359
00:20:01,650 --> 00:20:03,410
Starlinky 3 satellites.
360
00:20:03,500 --> 00:20:06,420
They're the new ones which are
now being released. It also
361
00:20:06,420 --> 00:20:09,849
undertook a test restart of one
of its surface Raptor engines,
362
00:20:10,260 --> 00:20:13,489
and that was followed by a
flawless atmospheric re-entry to
363
00:20:13,489 --> 00:20:17,479
Sandton Landing. Now usually the
heat of re-entry, the impact of
364
00:20:17,479 --> 00:20:20,310
the splashdown, and the
remaining fuel inside the
365
00:20:20,310 --> 00:20:23,369
spaceship combine to trigger an
explosion, resulting in the
366
00:20:23,369 --> 00:20:25,300
Starship breaking up and
sinking.
367
00:20:25,680 --> 00:20:29,150
But this time, for the first
time, Starship simply tumbled
368
00:20:29,150 --> 00:20:33,280
over into the water and floated,
bobbing up and down, and that's
369
00:20:33,280 --> 00:20:36,079
provided SpaceX with an
unexpected opportunity.
370
00:20:36,479 --> 00:20:40,050
The SpaceX recovery ship Go
Australis monitored the splashed
371
00:20:40,050 --> 00:20:43,119
out from a safe distance and has
remained nearby while mission
372
00:20:43,119 --> 00:20:46,770
managers were working out how to
recover the spacecraft. SpaceX
373
00:20:46,770 --> 00:20:50,729
boss Elon Musk says a pair of
Norwegian tugboats named Normand
374
00:20:50,729 --> 00:20:54,089
Ranger and Skimmer Tide were
then contracted to carry out a
375
00:20:54,089 --> 00:20:55,150
recovery effort.
376
00:20:55,709 --> 00:20:58,589
The latest satellite images show
what looks like a tow line
377
00:20:58,589 --> 00:21:01,810
attached to the Starship, and
ship tracking data from marine
378
00:21:01,810 --> 00:21:05,189
traffic shows the two tugs
moving at about 1 nautical mile
379
00:21:05,189 --> 00:21:08,310
per hour and broadcasting the
fact that they had a restricted
380
00:21:08,310 --> 00:21:10,949
level of maneuverability,
inferring that they were towing
381
00:21:10,949 --> 00:21:11,250
something.
382
00:21:12,329 --> 00:21:15,849
The recovery of Starship will
provide SpaceX with a treasure
383
00:21:15,849 --> 00:21:18,810
trove of invaluable data about
the test which they weren't
384
00:21:18,810 --> 00:21:21,849
expecting to get. Previously,
they've always had to rely on
385
00:21:21,849 --> 00:21:24,530
visual images and onboard
sensors during what were
386
00:21:24,530 --> 00:21:25,989
sacrificial missions.
387
00:21:26,329 --> 00:21:29,449
So to actually have a complete
spacecraft to study will greatly
388
00:21:29,449 --> 00:21:34,109
advance the test program. Musk
says Starship Test Flight 13 was
389
00:21:34,109 --> 00:21:37,510
so promising that SpaceX might
now attempt to catch Starship
390
00:21:37,510 --> 00:21:40,569
back on dry land after the next
test flight, which is likely to
391
00:21:40,569 --> 00:21:42,910
take place later this month or
early next.
392
00:21:43,829 --> 00:21:46,890
Meanwhile, NASA are monitoring
the whole operation closely as
393
00:21:46,890 --> 00:21:50,270
both a version of Starship and
Blue Origin's Blue Moon lander
394
00:21:50,270 --> 00:21:53,469
will be used to shuttle crews
and supplies from lunar orbit
395
00:21:53,469 --> 00:21:56,430
down to the moon's surface and
back again with missions due to
396
00:21:56,430 --> 00:21:59,329
commence with Artemis 4 in 2028.
397
00:21:59,910 --> 00:22:03,070
To meet that deadline, Starship
needs to be ready for next year
398
00:22:03,070 --> 00:22:06,760
's Artemis 3 mission. That's
where Amanda Ryan capsule will
399
00:22:06,760 --> 00:22:09,719
dock with both Blue Origin's
Blue Moon Lunar Lander and the
400
00:22:09,719 --> 00:22:13,400
HLS or Human Landing System
version of Starship in low Earth
401
00:22:13,400 --> 00:22:14,030
orbit.
402
00:22:14,400 --> 00:22:18,020
The Artemis 3 crew will evaluate
Orion's systems, propulsion and
403
00:22:18,020 --> 00:22:21,199
communications, as well as
spacecraft interoperability
404
00:22:21,199 --> 00:22:24,060
through a series of rendezvous
and docking demonstrations
405
00:22:24,060 --> 00:22:26,540
involving both Starship and Blue
Moon.
406
00:22:27,030 --> 00:22:29,880
The Blue Origin Vehicle Blue
Moon will have the same crew
407
00:22:29,880 --> 00:22:33,160
module as the Blue Moon Mark 2
test vehicle, complete with a
408
00:22:33,160 --> 00:22:36,640
functioning life support system,
thereby allowing the Artemis 3
409
00:22:36,640 --> 00:22:40,400
crew to enter and evaluate its
systems. However, its propulsion
410
00:22:40,400 --> 00:22:43,400
system will use storable
propellants instead of cryogenic
411
00:22:43,400 --> 00:22:44,189
fuels.
412
00:22:44,640 --> 00:22:48,359
Meanwhile, SpaceX's Starship HLS
is expected to be equipped with
413
00:22:48,359 --> 00:22:51,939
a docking mechanism, but not an
operational life support system.
414
00:22:52,400 --> 00:22:55,359
So the crew will remain on board
Orion rather than entering the
415
00:22:55,359 --> 00:22:55,989
vehicle.
416
00:22:56,349 --> 00:22:59,959
Currently, both lunar landers
remain under development, and
417
00:22:59,959 --> 00:23:03,359
both are yet to complete NASA's
human rating certification
418
00:23:03,359 --> 00:23:07,640
process required before manned
operations can take place. After
419
00:23:07,640 --> 00:23:10,680
all that's done, NASA will
decide which lunar lander
420
00:23:10,680 --> 00:23:13,839
they'll use for the historic
Artemis 4 mission returning
421
00:23:13,839 --> 00:23:17,920
humans to the lunar surface.
This is space-time.
422
00:23:33,420 --> 00:23:35,619
And time now to take a brief
look at some of the other
423
00:23:35,619 --> 00:23:38,719
stories making news in science
this week with a Science Report.
424
00:23:39,479 --> 00:23:42,089
Scientists have developed a new
blood test to help look for
425
00:23:42,089 --> 00:23:45,930
signs of Alzheimer's. The new
test works by detecting a
426
00:23:45,930 --> 00:23:49,930
protein called phosphor-related
Tau 217, which is a biomarker
427
00:23:49,930 --> 00:23:53,670
for a build-up of amyloid plaque
in the brain. It's this sticky
428
00:23:53,670 --> 00:23:56,969
plaque which is thought to play
a central role in Alzheimer's
429
00:23:56,969 --> 00:23:57,510
disease.
430
00:23:57,900 --> 00:24:00,579
The new test could provide
results in as little as 18
431
00:24:00,579 --> 00:24:03,420
minutes, detecting changes in
the brain decades before
432
00:24:03,420 --> 00:24:07,140
symptoms develop. Australia's
Therapeutic Goods Administration
433
00:24:07,140 --> 00:24:10,819
has already approved clinical
trials of Tau 217, which are
434
00:24:10,819 --> 00:24:12,199
expected to begin shortly.
435
00:24:13,540 --> 00:24:17,180
A new study has found that
e-scooter riders are 3.5 times
436
00:24:17,180 --> 00:24:20,339
more likely than motorcyclists
to suffer traumatic brain
437
00:24:20,339 --> 00:24:23,729
injuries. The findings published
in the journal Scientific
438
00:24:23,729 --> 00:24:27,810
Reports are based on data from
more than 15,000 British trauma
439
00:24:27,810 --> 00:24:32,140
patients. The authors say unlike
people on motorbikes, e-scooter
440
00:24:32,140 --> 00:24:34,170
riders rarely wear helmets.
441
00:24:34,579 --> 00:24:37,209
They're also more likely to
damage their internal organs,
442
00:24:37,300 --> 00:24:40,500
but less likely to fracture
bones than motorcycle riders or
443
00:24:40,500 --> 00:24:44,479
bicycle riders for that matter.
Analyzing more than 20,000
444
00:24:44,479 --> 00:24:47,239
self-reported e-scooter
incidents, the study also found
445
00:24:47,239 --> 00:24:50,560
women reported worse injuries,
possibly because e-scooters
446
00:24:50,560 --> 00:24:53,099
appear to be designed more for
male body proportions.
447
00:24:54,630 --> 00:24:58,000
A remarkably well preserved
fossil from Mongolia's Gobi
448
00:24:58,000 --> 00:25:00,959
Desert is reshaping Sarz's
understanding of mammal
449
00:25:00,959 --> 00:25:05,239
evolution during the age of
dinosaurs. Based on their fossil
450
00:25:05,239 --> 00:25:09,319
teeth, the new species called
Tan balcoilli has been described
451
00:25:09,319 --> 00:25:12,560
in the journal Nature. It
belongs to a group of extinct
452
00:25:12,560 --> 00:25:15,439
mammals known as zillotides,
which were on a different branch
453
00:25:15,439 --> 00:25:18,300
of early mammal evolution
compared to most modern day
454
00:25:18,300 --> 00:25:19,479
placental mammals.
455
00:25:19,989 --> 00:25:22,760
Zelysts have been known from
isolated teeth and fragmented
456
00:25:22,760 --> 00:25:26,680
fossils for nearly 40 years.
Their distinctive teeth, which
457
00:25:26,680 --> 00:25:29,520
are more specialized for eating
plants rather than sharp
458
00:25:29,520 --> 00:25:32,160
insect-eating teeth found in
many Cretaceous mammals, led
459
00:25:32,160 --> 00:25:35,390
paleontologists to suggest that
they represent an unknown group
460
00:25:35,390 --> 00:25:39,119
of hoofed mammals, and this
newly discovered fossil further
461
00:25:39,119 --> 00:25:40,300
supports that view.
462
00:25:40,719 --> 00:25:44,680
Measuring between 6 and 7 inches
from head to tail, Tamikan had
463
00:25:44,680 --> 00:25:47,869
elongated hind limbs that gave
it an almost rabbit-like
464
00:25:47,869 --> 00:25:50,739
appearance. Based on these
findings, the authors have
465
00:25:50,739 --> 00:25:54,060
concluded that zelastides were
not placental mammals or
466
00:25:54,060 --> 00:25:57,339
especially placental-like in
appearance, but a subset of the
467
00:25:57,510 --> 00:25:59,000
Zellaalastoid group.
468
00:26:00,329 --> 00:26:03,530
A new study has shown that
wireless charging for drones
469
00:26:03,530 --> 00:26:06,810
could be achieved using lasers.
Currently drones run on
470
00:26:06,810 --> 00:26:10,650
batteries and have to land in
order to be recharged. Now
471
00:26:10,650 --> 00:26:13,969
researchers have designed a
piece of tech like a solar cell
472
00:26:13,969 --> 00:26:17,449
and put it onto the wings of a
drone. When they shot a laser
473
00:26:17,449 --> 00:26:20,130
beam at it, the technology
converted the laser's energy
474
00:26:20,130 --> 00:26:22,550
into electricity, making the
propeller spin.
475
00:26:23,109 --> 00:26:26,239
The authors used heat blocking
technology and airflow to keep
476
00:26:26,239 --> 00:26:29,319
the device cool, thereby
overcoming heat build-up from
477
00:26:29,319 --> 00:26:33,079
the laser's energy. A report in
the journal Matter And Light
478
00:26:33,079 --> 00:26:35,719
claims they'll have to address
many more challenges before the
479
00:26:35,719 --> 00:26:39,319
wireless charging system can
take flight. But the authors say
480
00:26:39,319 --> 00:26:42,819
this is the first step towards
refueling aircraft with nothing
481
00:26:42,819 --> 00:26:43,619
but light.
482
00:26:45,140 --> 00:26:48,569
Well, as we've all seen in
recent US Senate hearings, it is
483
00:26:48,569 --> 00:26:51,579
a fact that governments lie to
the public. Politicians do it,
484
00:26:51,660 --> 00:26:55,250
bureaucrats do it, and of course
the fourth estate does it. So it
485
00:26:55,250 --> 00:26:58,099
's easy to understand why people
would be skeptical about the
486
00:26:58,099 --> 00:26:59,449
stuff governments tell you.
487
00:26:59,819 --> 00:27:02,979
And sadly, this has given the
true blue conspiracy theory
488
00:27:02,979 --> 00:27:06,739
Fruit Loops free reign to push
their own beliefs. And one of
489
00:27:06,739 --> 00:27:10,290
the latest is that NASA's recent
Artemis 2 mission, the first in
490
00:27:10,290 --> 00:27:13,260
over half a century to send
humans around the moon, was all
491
00:27:13,260 --> 00:27:14,540
an elaborate fake.
492
00:27:14,920 --> 00:27:18,000
Now it's been labeled a hoax, by
the same sort of mindset that
493
00:27:18,000 --> 00:27:21,479
claimed the original Apollo 11
lunar landing was faked, despite
494
00:27:21,479 --> 00:27:24,040
independent space agencies from
a number of other countries
495
00:27:24,040 --> 00:27:27,030
photographing the landing site,
as well as the return of regular
496
00:27:27,030 --> 00:27:30,079
from the lunar surface at a time
when robotic sample return
497
00:27:30,079 --> 00:27:31,819
missions weren't really a thing.
498
00:27:32,329 --> 00:27:35,050
Also, there's the ability for
you to go out tonight with a
499
00:27:35,050 --> 00:27:38,530
laser beam and shine that beam
on a retroreflector placed on
500
00:27:38,530 --> 00:27:42,130
the moon by human hands and
receive a return signal 2.5
501
00:27:42,130 --> 00:27:44,949
seconds later, proof that humans
walked on the moon.
502
00:27:45,770 --> 00:27:48,890
Or there's the simple fact that
lots of other countries were
503
00:27:48,890 --> 00:27:51,650
involved in the mission,
including Australia, and even
504
00:27:51,650 --> 00:27:55,479
after more than 50 years, no one
involved in the program has
505
00:27:55,479 --> 00:27:58,280
denied the fact that it
happened. And when you consider
506
00:27:58,280 --> 00:28:01,130
how government's leak and how
people like to boast, that's
507
00:28:01,130 --> 00:28:02,050
pretty impressive.
508
00:28:02,689 --> 00:28:06,050
So, the takeaway is, you don't
have to believe what governments
509
00:28:06,050 --> 00:28:08,719
tell you, but when a dozen
different sources are all giving
510
00:28:08,719 --> 00:28:11,900
you the same advice, they may
just be speaking the truth.
511
00:28:12,369 --> 00:28:14,770
Which brings us to an
interesting survey of US
512
00:28:14,770 --> 00:28:18,010
residents conducted by the
University Of New Hampshire. It
513
00:28:18,010 --> 00:28:21,599
shows that 10% of respondents
still think NASA faked the moon
514
00:28:21,599 --> 00:28:22,410
landings.
515
00:28:22,969 --> 00:28:25,290
So as you can see, the
collateral damage caused by
516
00:28:25,290 --> 00:28:28,530
dishonest government goes deep
and affects many unintended
517
00:28:28,530 --> 00:28:32,810
areas. The skeptics Tim Minden
says it also shows an appalling
518
00:28:32,810 --> 00:28:35,609
lack of basic scientific
understanding. We're talking
519
00:28:35,609 --> 00:28:38,729
high school level stuff here,
the sort of things that can't be
520
00:28:38,729 --> 00:28:39,010
faked.
521
00:28:39,170 --> 00:28:41,209
We've sort of seen this before,
don't we? Anything that comes
522
00:28:41,209 --> 00:28:44,109
out of NASA or anything that
comes out of a scientific body,
523
00:28:44,290 --> 00:28:46,569
there's always some people who
respond instantly saying it's a
524
00:28:46,569 --> 00:28:50,130
fake, whether it's the moon
landing or so many 50 years
525
00:28:50,130 --> 00:28:53,849
later, the Artemis 2 mission.
People are instantly saying it's
526
00:28:53,849 --> 00:28:57,209
not true. They're not really in
space. It's a deep fake sort of
527
00:28:57,209 --> 00:28:58,270
AI video.
528
00:28:58,557 --> 00:29:00,467
Honestly, the question is why.
529
00:29:00,717 --> 00:29:02,357
Why? I don't know. You look at
it.
530
00:29:02,416 --> 00:29:04,376
Is it some sort of a
psychological problem these
531
00:29:04,376 --> 00:29:07,626
people have? Is it their need
for relevance? I know that you
532
00:29:07,626 --> 00:29:09,536
don't know and I'm going to tell
you what they are right now.
533
00:29:09,677 --> 00:29:11,536
There's obviously a bit of that.
I mean, people want to get
534
00:29:11,536 --> 00:29:14,756
notoriety, etc. And that's a
pretty cynical motivation, and
535
00:29:14,756 --> 00:29:16,557
there's nothing you can say to
those people, quite frankly,
536
00:29:16,796 --> 00:29:20,116
whether they're a flat earther,
whether they're an Artemis II
537
00:29:20,116 --> 00:29:21,116
conspiracy theory.
538
00:29:21,237 --> 00:29:23,937
You can try and debunk their
beliefs, and if they even accept
539
00:29:23,937 --> 00:29:25,416
that debunking, they'll jump
onto another one.
540
00:29:25,636 --> 00:29:28,744
But once a conspiracy theorist
Almost always a conspiracy
541
00:29:28,744 --> 00:29:31,144
theorist, and the interesting
thing in this story, which I
542
00:29:31,144 --> 00:29:33,254
should add is that the
University Of New Hampshire
543
00:29:33,254 --> 00:29:37,303
pointed out that 58 to 83% of
people agreed with statements of
544
00:29:37,303 --> 00:29:40,173
basic scientific facts, such as
the Earth is billions of years
545
00:29:40,173 --> 00:29:42,823
old or revolves around the Sun.
Now that is worrisome.
546
00:29:43,043 --> 00:29:47,303
They say 58 to 83 means at the
very best 17% of people do
547
00:29:47,303 --> 00:29:49,303
believe that the Earth revolves
around the Sun or that the Earth
548
00:29:49,303 --> 00:29:52,864
is billions of years old, up to
42% of people who don't believe
549
00:29:52,864 --> 00:29:54,624
that thing. You think that's
scientific literacy?
550
00:29:54,744 --> 00:29:57,331
That is as big a worry.
Anything, I think the Artemis
551
00:29:57,331 --> 00:30:00,610
hoaxes are a very small
minority. When you say 42% of
552
00:30:00,610 --> 00:30:02,610
people have trouble with the
Earth being billions of years
553
00:30:02,610 --> 00:30:05,090
old or the Earth revolves around
the Sun, then you know you're in
554
00:30:05,090 --> 00:30:05,421
trouble.
555
00:30:05,531 --> 00:30:08,531
I still get emails from flat
earthers, so yeah, I'm not
556
00:30:08,531 --> 00:30:08,831
surprised.
557
00:30:08,931 --> 00:30:11,291
I haven't had any for a while.
I'm very disappointed. I have
558
00:30:11,291 --> 00:30:13,171
been invited to join the
Illuminati twice.
559
00:30:13,301 --> 00:30:15,541
Yeah, you're too busy with the
Bilderberg Group, aren't you?
560
00:30:15,921 --> 00:30:17,770
That's right, Bilderberg, yeah,
that's the one with the skull,
561
00:30:17,931 --> 00:30:18,651
that's skull and bones.
562
00:30:18,760 --> 00:30:20,120
Look, I've never been to any of
the meetings.
563
00:30:20,211 --> 00:30:21,291
Your absence has been noted.
564
00:30:21,370 --> 00:30:24,531
That's the skeptics Tim Mind,
and this is Space time.
565
00:30:39,890 --> 00:30:43,660
And that's the show for now.
SpaceT is available every
566
00:30:43,660 --> 00:30:47,579
Monday, Wednesday, and Friday
through Bytes.Com, SoundCloud,
567
00:30:47,780 --> 00:30:51,300
YouTube, your favorite podcast
download provider, and from
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SpaceTime with Stuart Garry.Com.
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SpaceT's also broadcast through
the National Science Foundation
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00:30:57,260 --> 00:31:01,219
on Science Zone Radio and on
both IHeartRadio and TuneIn
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00:31:01,219 --> 00:31:01,819
Radio.
572
00:31:02,219 --> 00:31:05,099
And you can help to support our
show by visiting the SpaceT
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00:31:05,099 --> 00:31:09,050
store for a range of promotional
merchandizing goodies, or by
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00:31:09,050 --> 00:31:12,540
becoming a SpaceTime patron,
which gives you access to triple
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00:31:12,540 --> 00:31:15,420
episode commercial free versions
of the show, as well as lots of
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bonus audio content which
doesn't go to air, access to our
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00:31:18,699 --> 00:31:22,569
exclusive Facebook group and
other rewards. Just go to
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00:31:22,569 --> 00:31:25,819
SpaceTime with Stuart Garry.Com
for full details.
579
00:31:26,410 --> 00:31:29,040
You've been listening to
SpaceTime with Stuart Garry.
580
00:31:29,569 --> 00:31:32,449
This has been another quality
podcast production from
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00:31:32,449 --> 00:31:33,489
Bytes.Com.
